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Chapter 20
This lesson delves into the geometry of a radical, which is influenced by the electronic structure of the molecule. The principle is similar to that of a ...
Ideally, an unpaired electron shows a single peak in the EPR spectrum due to the transition between the two spin energy states. However, coupling ...
A bond can be broken either by heterolytic bond cleavage to form ions or homolytic bond cleavage to yield radicals. A fishhook arrow is used to ...
A bond is formed between two atoms by sharing two electrons. When this bond is broken by supplying sufficient energy, either two electrons can be taken up ...
The electron of an atom can be abstracted from a compound by a relatively unstable radical to generate a new radical of relatively greater stability. For ...
Radicals can be formed by adding a radical to a spin-paired molecule. This is typically observed with unsaturated species, where the addition of a radical ...
Another method of radical formation is the elimination process. It is the opposite of the addition route and is driven by the instability of the radical. ...
Radicals, the highly reactive species, gain stability by undergoing three different reactions. The first reaction involves a radical-radical coupling, in ...
The presence of electron-donating, electron-withdrawing, or conjugating groups adjacent to a radical center, imparts electronic stabilization to the ...
In a radical reaction, the concentration of starting materials governs the selectivity of a radical. For example, the reaction between an alkyl halide and ...
Radicals adjacent to electron‐withdrawing groups are called electrophilic radicals. These radicals readily react with nucleophilic alkenes. For ...
Radicals adjacent to electron-donating groups are called nucleophilic radicals. These radicals readily react with electrophilic alkenes. The ...
Radical reactions can occur either intermolecularly or intramolecularly. In an intermolecular radical reaction, a nucleophilic radical adds to an ...
The oxidation of an organic compound in the presence of air or oxygen is called autoxidation. For example, cumene reacts with oxygen to form ...
Activated manganese(IV) oxide can selectively oxidize allylic and benzylic alcohols via a radical intermediate mechanism. Primary allylic alcohols are ...
In the presence of heat or light, alkanes react with molecular halogens to form alkyl halides by a substitution reaction called radical halogenation. This ...
The thermodynamic favorability of a reaction is determined by the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG). ΔG has two components- enthalpy (ΔH) ...
Stereochemistry is the study of the different spatial arrangements of atoms in a given molecule. The stereochemistry of radical halogenations can be ...
Typically, when alkenes react with halogens at low temperatures, an addition reaction occurs. However, upon increasing the temperature or under reaction ...
In organic synthesis, the formation of products can be altered by changing the reaction conditions. For example, a dibromo addition product is ...
Radical substitution reactions can be used to remove functional groups from molecules. The hydrogenolysis of alkyl halides is one such reaction, where the ...
The addition of hydrogen bromide to alkenes in the presence of hydroperoxides or peroxides proceeds via an anti-Markovnikov pathway and yields alkyl ...
The reaction of hydrogen bromide with alkenes in the presence of hydroperoxides or peroxides proceeds via anti-Markovnikov addition. The radical chain ...
The anti-Markovnikov addition of hydrogen halides to an alkene is thermodynamically feasible only with HBr. The radical addition reaction with other ...
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig discovered the pinacol coupling reaction in 1859. It is a radical dimerization reaction and involves the reductive coupling of ...
The radical dimerization of ketones or aldehydes gives vicinal diols through a pinacol coupling reaction. However, the behavior of titanium metals used ...
The pinacol and McMurry reactions involve the reductive coupling of ketones or aldehydes. Similarly, the bimolecular reductive coupling of two ester ...
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