Name: modifying the bank erosion hazard index (behi) protocol for rapid assessment of streambank erosion in northeastern ohio
Uploaded: 2015-02-13T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 13 min
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index BEHI Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio at JoVE.com

The authors would like to acknowledge the Cleveland Metroparks, including J. Grieser, J. Markowitz, B. Garman, and supporting staff; Case Western Reserve University, Dr. J. Burns; and GLISTEN, the Great Lakes Innovative Stewardship through Education Network.

1. Streambank Identification
<ol>
	<li>Identify a uniform section of bank on one side of the stream. Differentiate this section by a drastically different slope of the bank, different bank material, or a break in vegetation. This section of streambank should be visibly different from the sections on either side. There is not a minimum or maximum length of bank. Separation of extremely long sections into smaller segments will simplify the assessment.</li>
</ol>
2. Pre-Screening BEHI Questionnaire (Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Answer the following questions about the uniform streambank section with yes/no responses from Figure 1.
	<ol>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does the uniform section of bank exhibit less than or equal to 50% protection at the toe of the bank?&#8221; The toe is located at the base of the bank where it meets the water during base flow conditions; on average the bottom six to eight inches of the bank. Protection includes embedded boulders, embedded large woody debris, and rooted vegetation. Bedrock counts as toe protection; however, easily breakable bedrock is not toe protection.</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank exhibit an undercut of 0.5 feet or more?&#8221; An undercut bank is a streambank that has undergone erosion beneath the ground surface.</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank exhibit stratification?&#8221; Stratification is a clearly defined horizontal break in geology. One layer of the stratification must be composed of an erodible material (sand, gravel, or matrix).</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank have a bank height of ten feet or more with 50% or more soil exposure?&#8221;</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;does 50% or more of the bank exhibit roots lacking bank material (soil)?&#8221;</li>
		<li>Answer the question &#8220;is 50% or more of the bank void of rooted vegetation?&#8221;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>If there are two or more &#8220;YES&#8221; answers in the Figure 1 questionnaire, perform a BEHI evaluation of the bank as there is a significant chance that streambank erosion is occurring or will occur.</li>
	<li>If there are less than two &#8220;YES&#8221; answers in the Figure 1 questionnaire, do not proceed with the BEHI evaluation because the bank is experiencing little to no erosion (i.e., very low to low BEHI rating).</li>
</ol>
3. BEHI Evaluation Data Sheet (Figure 3)
<ol>
	<li>Record the date, the weather, and the personnel in the spaces provided on the BEHI Evaluation Data Sheet.</li>
	<li>Record the number of the bank being evaluated. For example, 1 is the first bank being assessing that day, 2 is the second bank being assessing, 3, 4, 5&#8230;and so on.</li>
	<li>Take GPS coordinates at the most upstream (where the water is flowing from) and most downstream (where the water is flowing to) points of the bank. Stand as close to the bank as possible to ensure accuracy.</li>
	<li>Take pictures at both the upstream and downstream points on the bank. Capture the main features of the bank in the pictures. Take additional pictures to capture features on the bank or in the channel (i.e., stratification, large woody debris jams, etc.). Record the picture numbers for reference.</li>
	<li>Record the side of the stream being assessed (left bank or right bank). Determine the left bank and right bank when facing downstream; left and right respectively.</li>
	<li>Measure the bank height, in feet, from the toe of the bank to the top of the bank. Determine the top of the bank by the first definable break in slope, generally lying parallel to water flow.</li>
	<li>Measure the bank length at the toe, in feet, between the most upstream and most downstream points on the bank.</li>
	<li>Write the number of the questions that were answered with a &#8220;yes&#8221; in the initial &#8220;Pre-Screening BEHI Questionnaire&#8221; in Step 2.</li>
	<li>Note the distance to infrastructure and the type of infrastructure (i.e., bridges, culverts, roads, utilities, houses etc.).</li>
	<li>Circle any of the following qualitative indicators that are present: Unvegetated mid-channel bar/braided channel, exposed tree roots on both sides, leaning trees on both sides, exposed infrastructure, downstream of a dam, slumping streambanks, headcuts, perched tributaries, failed &#8220;Best Management Practices&#8221; (BMP&#8217;s) such as revetment walls, gabion baskets or culverts.</li>
	<li>Note the composition of the bank material. Record the predominant materials found along the bank section that is under evaluation. 
	NOTE: Streambanks can be a mix of materials. For example, a bank may have &#8220;shale at the toe, and silty sand with trace gravel above&#8221;. &#8220;Silty sand&#8221; indicates more sand than silt and &#8220;trace gravel&#8221; indicates a small amount of gravel. &#8220;Sandy silt&#8221; indicates more silt than sand.</li>
	<li>Make bank material adjustments based on the erodibility of the material.
	<ol>
		<li>Subtract up to 10 points for material that does not have a high rate of erodibility (i.e., cobble). Add up to 10 points for extremely erodible materials (i.e., sand). A mixture of material (i.e., sand with some gravel or silty sand with trace gravel) is more often found in stream systems so an average score would be more appropriate (Figure 4). This is not a mandatory adjustment. See Figure 4 In Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the ratio of the average root depth of plants to the study bank height, expressed as a percentage, to estimate the adherence of bank material by vegetation (Figure 5).
	<ol>
		<li>Visually estimate the root depth vertically from top of the bank to the toe of the bank. For example, if roots are growing in the top half of the bank, the root depth would be 50%. If there are roots growing from the top of the bank to the toe, the root depth would be 100%.</li>
		<li>Take an average percentage of the root depth along the entire section under evaluation. Do not consider roots that are void of bank material (i.e., hanging roots).</li>
		<li>Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 5 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the root density by making a visual assessment of the amount of bank composed of root material, expressed as a percentage.
	<ol>
		<li>Do not consider roots that are void of bank material. Small, fibrous roots can be very dense and provide greater soil retention compared to the larger root systems of trees (Figure 6A and 6B). Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 6 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Measure the angle from the lower bank at the waterline during base flow to the top of the bank (Figure 7). An extremely undercut bank can have an angle up to 120 degrees.
	<ol>
		<li>Place a measuring stick at a 90 degree angle to the waterline in order to estimate the bank angle or use an inclinometer if available. Take an average of the bank angle along the entire section under evaluation. For example, if the section is mostly 90 degrees with a small section that has 110 degree undercut, the recorded degree would be approximately 100 degrees.</li>
		<li>Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 7 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the surface protection present, the amount of streambank covered and protected by woody debris, rooted vegetation, embedded boulders, revetment, bedrock, or other embedded materials that protect the streambank from erosion (Figure 8).
	<ol>
		<li>Visually estimate the percentage of streambank not exposed to erosive forces. Estimate a percentage based on the entire bank, then use the &#8220;BEHI Score Chart&#8221; to record the score for that percentage on the data sheet. See Figure 8 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Visually determine the number of stratified layers. Stratification refers to a clearly defined horizontal break in geology which has the potential to cause and enhance zones of preferential erosion (Figure 9).
	<ol>
		<li>Record how many layers of stratification are present. See Figure 9 in Results Section.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Make stratification adjustments if increased erosion is occurring due to the stratified layers.
	<ol>
		<li>Add up to 5 points for a single layer of stratification (two different geologic layers). Add up to 10 points for multiple layers of stratification (three different geologic layers). Only adjust for stratification if at least one layer of material is erodible (sand, gravel, or matrix).</li>
		<li>Consider where the stratified layers are in relation to the water, i.e., stratified layers that are 50 feet above the base flow may not have an erosive effect. A stratified layer near the toe of the bank may have an extremely erosive effect. An average score may be necessary, especially when considering how erodible the materials are and where the stratified layer is in relation to the water. This is not a mandatory adjustment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Add all scores together to determine the overall modified BEHI rating (very low/low: 4 &#8211; 15.5, moderate: 15.75 &#8211; 23.5, high: 23.75 &#8211; 31.5, very high: 31.75 &#8211; 36.5, or extreme: &#62;36.5) for the streambank assessed. Record the total score and the rating in the spaces provided on the data sheet.</li>
	<li>Take note of the streambank specifics. For example, streambank is on the outside of a meander bend, a large woody debris jam, an out of place culvert, or strong petroleum odor. Note any failing infrastructure here.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Rosgen, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Stream+Channel+Assessment+Methodology.">A Stream Channel Assessment Methodology.</a> Proceedings of 7th Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conference. , 26 (2001).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Upper Esopus Creek Management Plan. 1-3, (2007).</li><li>Karr, J. R., Dudley, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ecological+perspective+on+water+quality+goals.">Ecological perspective on water quality goals.</a> Environmental Management. 5 (1), 55-68 (1981).</li><li>Trimble, S. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+Stream+Channel+Erosion+to+Sediment+Yield+from+an+Urbanizing+Watershed.">Contribution of Stream Channel Erosion to Sediment Yield from an Urbanizing Watershed.</a> Science. 278 (1), 1442-1444 (1997).</li><li>Lee, J. G., Heaney, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimation+of+Urban+Imperviousness+and+its+Impacts+on+Storm+Water+Systems.">Estimation of Urban Imperviousness and its Impacts on Storm Water Systems.</a> Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. 129 (5), 419-426 (2003).</li><li>Bilotta, G. S., Brazier, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+the+influence+of+suspended+solids+on+water+quality+and+aquatic+biota.">Understanding the influence of suspended solids on water quality and aquatic biota.</a> Water Research. 42 (12), 2849-2861 (2008).</li><li>Hansen, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streambank+(RBS)+erosion+study+for+the+Minnesota+River+basin.">Streambank (RBS) erosion study for the Minnesota River basin.</a> Report prepared for the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. , (2010).</li><li>Fox, N., Goodman, B., Teel, W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluating+Conservation+Reserve+Program+Impacts+on+Smith+Creek+Erosion+Rates+in+the+Shenendoah+Valley.">Evaluating Conservation Reserve Program Impacts on Smith Creek Erosion Rates in the Shenendoah Valley.</a> Virginia Water Research Symposium. , 103-113 (2004).</li><li>Rosgen, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Practical+Method+of+Computing+Streambank+Erosion+Rate.">A Practical Method of Computing Streambank Erosion Rate.</a> , 15 (2001).</li><li>Simpson, A., Turner, I., Brantley, E., Helms, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bank+erosion+hazard+index+as+an+indicator+of+near-bank+aquatic+habitat+and+community+structure+in+a+southeastern+Piedmont+stream.">Bank erosion hazard index as an indicator of near-bank aquatic habitat and community structure in a southeastern Piedmont stream.</a> Ecological Indicators. 43 (1), 19-28 (2014).</li><li>Rosgen, D. L., Frantila, D., Silvey, H. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=River+Stability:+Field+Guide.">River Stability: Field Guide.</a> Wildland Hydrology. , (2008).</li><li>Prosser, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Huron+and+Cleveland+Shales+of+Northern+Ohio.">The Huron and Cleveland Shales of Northern Ohio.</a> The Journal of Geology. 21 (4), 323-362 (1913).</li><li>Rathbun, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Standard+operating+procedure:+assessing+bank+erosion+potential+using+Rosgen's+bank+erosion+hazard+index+(BEHI).">Standard operating procedure: assessing bank erosion potential using Rosgen's bank erosion hazard index (BEHI).</a> Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, Water Bureau, Nonpoint Source Division. , (2008).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The most critical steps for accurate completion of the modified BEHI protocol are to: correctly identify a uniform section of streambank to assess, if the streambank length has too much variability it is best to separate and assess smaller segments to accurately capture the erodibility of the streambank; complete the Pre-Screening Questionnaire to confirm that a BEHI assessment should be completed on that streambank, if there is uncertainty in whether a bank passes the Pre-Screening Questionnaire, a BEHI assessment shoul...

Streambank erosion is a natural process; however excessive erosion can contribute a significant amount of non-point source pollution in the form of suspended sediment2. Increased suspended sediment affects water quality, physical, and biological functions of a stream3. Human influences can greatly affect streambank erosion, and significantly increase sediment loads4, particularly in urban systems where there is an increase in storm water runoff and impervious surfaces5. Higher sediment loads can negatively affect water quality and the ecosystems of streams6. Watershed management practices throughout the Cleveland Metroparks attempt to locate and inventory the source and rate the risk of potential streambank erosion to assist in effective management strategies, as well as in stream, riparian, and habitat restoration.
David Rosgen, with Wildland Hydrology, developed the Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), which evaluates the susceptibility of streambank erosion on a stream reach based on a combination of several erodibility variables7. BEHI uses a variety of indicators to rank the severity and probability of streambank erosion, including the bank material, stratification, root depth and density, bank angle, the bankfull height to bank height ratio, and the amount of surface protection present. The BEHI assessment assigns a numerical value which corresponds to an overall BEHI rating (very low, low, moderate, high, very high, or extreme), for a particular streambank. This protocol has been effective in assessing potential streambank erosion8-10 and can be used in conjunction with other water quality and habitat assessments. Streambanks exhibiting a high BEHI rating have been shown to correspond to less diverse and less stable macroinvertebrate communities, consisting mainly of opportunistic species11. Though the original BEHI method is useful, it can be extremely time consuming, difficult for non-professionals, and confined to specific geomorphic regions, specifically tailored for alluvial stream conditions12.
Modifications to this protocol were necessary in order to address these constraints. A &#8220;Pre-Screening Questionnaire&#8221; (Figure 1) was developed to identify and eliminate streambanks that are likely to rank very low or low, thus focusing the assessment on higher erosion areas, and decreasing the amount of time and resources required to perform a BEHI assessment on an entire stream. The questionnaire also addresses geologic differences between alluvial and non-alluvial stream conditions seen in Northeastern Ohio, such as extremely erodible shale bedrock13, which would not be assessed as an erodible material based on the original BEHI protocol. Elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric including the bankfull stage, which can be very difficult to determine, allowed for a faster streambank assessment and for non-professionals to complete the assessment with introductory training. This elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio was based on a modified BEHI procedure developed by Joe Rathbun at the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality14. To eliminate the necessity for additional calculations in the field, all other metrics are expressed as percentages except for bank angle, and stratification and bank material adjustments. Root density was initially expressed as the percent of soil composed of roots where the roots are extended. This was multiplied by the root depth to account for the entire bank height; however we replaced this with a simple estimate of the density of roots in the entire bank. Score adjustments were made to the original BEHI scoring system in order to account for the elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric and estimated percentages. As described in the original BEHI protocol the measured metrics were converted to a risk rating of 1-10 (10 being the highest level of risk). The risk ratings from 1 to 10 correspond to risk ratings of very low, low, moderate, high, very high, and extreme potential erosion. These relationships were established based on a catalog of field observations10. In the modified BEHI protocol, scores for the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric were subtracted from the original BEHI scoring system to reflect new total scores and risk ratings (Figure 2). These modifications address the limitations of the original BEHI protocol in Northeastern Ohio and assisted in maintaining consistency and reducing user bias.
The modified BEHI protocol was used to assess several high priority streams within the Cleveland Metroparks. The original BEHI assessment was performed by trained Cleveland Metropark personnel, on a length of stream to confirm the effectiveness of the modifications in identifying streambanks with higher rates of erosion. The modified BEHI protocol is used by professionals, volunteers, staff, and students to evaluate streambank erosion throughout the Cleveland Metroparks.

<table><tbody><tr><td>200&#039; reel tape measure</td><td></td><td></td><td>Tape measure can be used to measure bank length and height</td></tr><tr><td>Inclinometer</td><td></td><td></td><td>Inclinometer may be used to measure bank angle.</td></tr><tr><td>GPS</td><td></td><td></td><td>GPS is used to take points along the stream, make sure for mapping purposes to use a GPS that takes accurate readings.</td></tr><tr><td>Camera</td><td></td><td></td><td>Camera is used to take photos of the banks under assessment and of any major stream features.</td></tr></tbody></table>

modifying the bank erosion hazard index (behi) protocol for rapid assessment of streambank erosion in northeastern ohio

Understanding the source of pollution in a stream is vital to preserving, restoring, and maintaining the stream&#8217;s function and habitat it provides. Sediments from highly eroding streambanks are a major source of pollution in a stream system and have the potential to jeopardize habitat, infrastructure, and stream function. Watershed management practices throughout the Cleveland Metroparks attempt to locate and inventory the source and rate the risk of potential streambank erosion to assist in formulating effect stream, riparian, and habitat management recommendations. The Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), developed by David Rosgen of Wildland Hydrology is a fluvial geomorphic assessment procedure used to evaluate the susceptibility of potential streambank erosion based on a combination of several variables that are sensitive to various processes of erosion. This protocol can be time consuming, difficult for non-professionals, and confined to specific geomorphic regions. To address these constraints and assist in maintaining consistency and reducing user bias, modifications to this protocol include a &#8220;Pre-Screening Questionnaire&#8221;, elimination of the Study Bank-Height Ratio metric including the bankfull determination, and an adjusted scoring system. This modified protocol was used to assess several high priority streams within the Cleveland Metroparks. The original BEHI protocol was also used to confirm the results of the modified BEHI protocol. After using the modified assessment in the field, and comparing it to the original BEHI method, the two were found to produce comparable BEHI ratings of the streambanks, while significantly reducing the amount of time and resources needed to complete the modified protocol.

Streambanks that did not pass the Pre-Screening Questionnaire and were not assessed with the modified BEHI protocol, ranked low or very low when assessed with the original BEHI protocol (Figure 10). This supports the use of the Pre-Screening Questionnaire as a way to quickly identify streambanks that are experiencing moderate to extreme rates of erosion. See Figure 10&#160;below.
In general, streambanks assessed were placed in the same final B...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index BEHI Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio at JoVE.com

Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index BEHI Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio

Streambank erosion potential can be evaluated and ranked using David Rosgen&#8217;s Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), however this protocol has significant limitations. Here we present protocol modifications to address time constraints, allow nonprofessionals to complete accurate assessments, and account for non-alluvial stream conditions in Northeast Ohio.

Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI) Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio

Understanding the source of pollution in a stream is vital to preserving, restoring, and maintaining the stream&#8217;s function and habitat it provides. ...

modifying-bank-erosion-hazard-index-behi-protocol-for-rapid

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

9.0K Views.  Cleveland Metroparks. Streambank erosion potential can be evaluated and ranked using David Rosgen’s Bank Erosion Hazard Index (BEHI), however this protocol has significant limitations. Here we present protocol modifications to address time constraints, allow nonprofessionals to complete accurate assessments, and account for non-alluvial stream conditions in Northeast Ohio.

Video: Modifying the Bank Erosion Hazard Index BEHI Protocol for Rapid Assessment of Streambank Erosion in Northeastern Ohio

Design and Construction of an Urban Runoff Research Facility

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use due to increased demand for landscape irrigation. Improper irrigation practices and large rainfall events can result in runoff from urban landscapes which has potential to carry nutrients and sediments into local streams and lakes where they may contribute to eutrophication. A 1,000 m2 facility was constructed which consists of 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots, each equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated urban landscapes. Runoff volumes from the first and second trials had coefficient of variability (CV) values of 38.2 and 28.7%, respectively. CV values for runoff pH, EC, and Na concentration for both trials were all under 10%. Concentrations of DOC, TDN, DON, PO4-P, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ had CV values less than 50% in both trials. Overall, the results of testing performed after sod installation at the facility indicated good uniformity between plots for runoff volumes and chemical constituents. The large plot size is sufficient to include much of the natural variability and therefore provides better simulation of urban landscape ecosystems.

This paper describes the design, construction, and function of a 1,000 m2 facility containing 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated home lawns.

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use ...

Experimental Protocol for Manipulating Plant-induced Soil Heterogeneity

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as plant-soil feedbacks (PSF) have large effects on plant performance, and create environmental heterogeneity that depends on the community composition. Understanding the importance of PSF for plant community assembly necessitates understanding of the role of heterogeneity in PSF, in addition to mean PSF effects. Here, we describe a protocol for manipulating plant-induced soil heterogeneity. Two example experiments are presented: (1) a field experiment with a 6-patch grid of soils to measure plant population responses and (2) a greenhouse experiment with 2-patch soils to measure individual plant responses. Soils can be collected from the zone of root influence (soils from the rhizosphere and directly adjacent to the rhizosphere) of plants in the field from conspecific and heterospecific plant species. Replicate collections are used to avoid pseudoreplicating soil samples. These soils are then placed into separate patches for heterogeneous treatments or mixed for a homogenized treatment. Care should be taken to ensure that heterogeneous and homogenized treatments experience the same degree of soil disturbance. Plants can then be placed in these soil treatments to determine the effect of plant-induced soil heterogeneity on plant performance. We demonstrate that plant-induced heterogeneity results in different outcomes than predicted by traditional coexistence models, perhaps because of the dynamic nature of these feedbacks. Theory that incorporates environmental heterogeneity influenced by the assembling community and additional empirical work is needed to determine when heterogeneity intrinsic to the assembling community will result in different assembly outcomes compared with heterogeneity extrinsic to the community composition.

Understanding the role of environmental heterogeneity in species coexistence has typically focused on types of heterogeneity that are extrinsic to the community&#8217;s species composition. We provide novel detailed methods for creating soil heterogeneity treatments using soils subject to plant-soil feedback conditioning, or heterogeneity intrinsic to the community composition.

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as ...

A Protocol for Conducting Rainfall Simulation to Study Soil Runoff

Rainfall is a driving force for the transport of environmental contaminants from agricultural soils to surficial water bodies via surface runoff. The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of antecedent soil moisture content on the fate and transport of surface applied commercial urea, a common form of nitrogen (N) fertilizer, following a rainfall event that occurs within 24&#160;hr&#160;after fertilizer application. Although urea is assumed to be readily hydrolyzed to ammonium and therefore not often available for transport, recent studies suggest that urea can be transported from agricultural soils to coastal waters where it is implicated in harmful algal blooms. A rainfall simulator was used to apply a consistent rate of uniform rainfall across packed soil boxes that had been prewetted to different soil moisture contents. By controlling rainfall and soil physical characteristics, the effects of antecedent soil moisture on urea loss were isolated. Wetter soils exhibited shorter time from rainfall initiation to runoff initiation, greater total volume of runoff, higher urea concentrations in runoff, and greater mass loadings of urea in runoff. These results also demonstrate the importance of controlling for antecedent soil moisture content in studies designed to isolate other variables, such as soil physical or chemical characteristics, slope, soil cover, management, or rainfall characteristics. Because rainfall simulators are designed to deliver raindrops of similar size and velocity as natural rainfall, studies conducted under a standardized protocol can yield valuable data that, in turn, can be used to develop models for predicting the fate and transport of pollutants in runoff.

A rainfall simulator was used to apply a consistent rate of uniform rainfall to packed soil boxes in a study of the fate and transport of urea, a nonpoint source environmental contaminant. Under uniform soil and rainfall conditions, antecedent soil moisture content exerted strong control over urea loss in surface runoff.

Rainfall is a driving force for the transport of environmental contaminants from agricultural soils to surficial water bodies via surface runoff. The ...

Watershed Planning within a Quantitative Scenario Analysis Framework

There is a critical need for tools and methodologies capable of managing aquatic systems within heavily impacted watersheds. Current efforts often fall short as a result of an inability to quantify and predict complex cumulative effects of current and future land use scenarios at relevant spatial scales. The goal of this manuscript is to provide methods for conducting a targeted watershed assessment that enables resource managers to produce landscape-based cumulative effects models for use within a scenario analysis management framework. Sites are first selected for inclusion within the watershed assessment by identifying sites that fall along independent gradients and combinations of known stressors. Field and laboratory techniques are then used to obtain data on the physical, chemical, and biological effects of multiple land use activities. Multiple linear regression analysis is then used to produce landscape-based cumulative effects models for predicting aquatic conditions. Lastly, methods for incorporating cumulative effects models within a scenario analysis framework for guiding management and regulatory decisions (e.g., permitting and mitigation) within actively developing watersheds are discussed and demonstrated for 2 sub-watersheds within the mountaintop mining region of central Appalachia. The watershed assessment and management approach provided herein enables resource managers to facilitate economic and development activity while protecting aquatic resources and producing opportunity for net ecological benefits through targeted remediation.

There is a critical need for tools and methodologies capable of managing aquatic systems in the face of uncertain future conditions. We provide methods for conducting a targeted watershed assessment that enables resource managers to produce landscape-based cumulative effects models for use within a scenario analysis management framework.

There is a critical need for tools and methodologies capable of managing aquatic systems within heavily impacted watersheds. Current efforts often fall ...

Methods of Soil Resampling to Monitor Changes in the Chemical Concentrations of Forest Soils

Recent soils research has shown that important chemical soil characteristics can change in less than a decade, often the result of broad environmental changes. Repeated sampling to monitor these changes in forest soils is a relatively new practice that is not well documented in the literature and has only recently been broadly embraced by the scientific community. The objective of this protocol is therefore to synthesize the latest information on methods of soil resampling in a format that can be used to design and implement a soil monitoring program. Successful monitoring of forest soils requires that a study unit be defined within an area of forested land that can be characterized with replicate sampling locations. A resampling interval of 5 years is recommended, but if monitoring is done to evaluate a specific environmental driver, the rate of change expected in that driver should be taken into consideration. Here, we show that the sampling of the profile can be done by horizon where boundaries can be clearly identified and horizons are sufficiently thick to remove soil without contamination from horizons above or below. Otherwise, sampling can be done by depth interval. Archiving of sample for future reanalysis is a key step in avoiding analytical bias and providing the opportunity for additional analyses as new questions arise.

Repeated soil sampling has recently been shown to be an effective way to monitor forest soil change over years and decades. To support its use, a protocol is presented that synthesizes the latest information on soil resampling methods to aid in the design and implementation of successful soil monitoring programs.

Recent soils research has shown that important chemical soil characteristics can change in less than a decade, often the result of broad environmental ...

Continuous Instream Monitoring of Nutrients and Sediment in Agricultural Watersheds

Pollutant concentrations and loads in watersheds vary considerably with time and space. Accurate and timely information on the magnitude of pollutants in water resources is a prerequisite for understanding the drivers of the pollutant loads and for making informed water resource management decisions. The commonly used &#34;grab sampling&#34; method provides the concentrations of pollutants at the time of sampling (i.e., a snapshot concentration) and may under- or overpredict the pollutant concentrations and loads. Continuous monitoring of nutrients and sediment has recently received more attention due to advances in computing, sensing technology, and storage devices. This protocol demonstrates the use of sensors, sondes, and instrumentation to continuously monitor in situ nitrate, ammonium, turbidity, pH, conductivity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen (DO) and to calculate the loads from two streams (ditches) in two agricultural watersheds. With the proper calibration, maintenance, and operation of sensors and sondes, good water quality data can be obtained by overcoming challenging conditions such as fouling and debris buildup. The method can also be used in watersheds of various sizes and characterized by agricultural, forested, and/or urban land.

With the advancement of technology and the rise in end-user expectations, the need and use of higher temporal resolution data for pollutant load estimation has increased. This protocol describes a method for continuous in situ water quality monitoring to obtain higher temporal resolution data for informed water resource management decisions.

Pollutant concentrations and loads in watersheds vary considerably with time and space. Accurate and timely information on the magnitude of pollutants in ...

Measuring and Mapping Patterns of Soil Erosion and Deposition Related to Soil Carbonate Concentrations Under Agricultural Management

Spatial patterns of soil erosion and deposition can be inferred from differences in ground elevation mapped at appropriate time increments. Such changes in elevation are related to changes in near-surface soil carbonate (CaCO3) profiles. The objective is to describe a simple conceptual model and detailed protocol for repeatable field and laboratory measurements of these quantities. Here, accurate elevation is measured using a ground-based differential global positioning system (GPS); other data acquisition methods could be applied to the same basic method. Soil samples are collected from prescribed depth intervals and analyzed in the lab using an efficient and precise modified pressure-calcimeter method for quantitative analysis of inorganic carbon concentration. Standard statistical methods are applied to point data, and representative results show significant correlations between changes in soil surface layer CaCO3 and changes in elevation consistent with the conceptual model; CaCO3 generally decreased in depositional areas and increased in erosional areas. Maps are derived from point measurements of elevation and soil CaCO3 to aid analyses. A map of erosional and depositional patterns at the study site, a rain-fed winter wheat field cropped in alternating wheat-fallow strips, shows the interacting effects of water and wind erosion affected by management and topography. Alternative sampling methods and depth intervals are discussed and recommended for future work relating soil erosion and deposition to soil CaCO3.

Spatial patterns of soil erosion and deposition can be inferred from differences in ground elevation mapped at appropriate time increments. Such changes in elevation are related to changes in near-surface soil carbonates. Repeatable methods for field and laboratory measurements of these quantities and data analysis methods are described here.

Spatial patterns of soil erosion and deposition can be inferred from differences in ground elevation mapped at appropriate time increments. Such changes ...

Continuous Hydrologic and Water Quality Monitoring of Vernal Ponds

Vernal ponds, also referred to as vernal pools, provide critical ecosystem services and habitat for a variety of threatened and endangered species. However, they are vulnerable parts of the landscapes that are often poorly understood and understudied. Land use and management practices, as well as climate change are thought to be a contribution to the global amphibian decline. However, more research is needed to understand the extent of these impacts. Here, we present methodology for characterizing a vernal pond's morphology and detail a monitoring station that can be used to collect water quantity and quality data over the duration of a vernal pond's hydroperiod. We provide methodology for how to conduct field surveys to characterize the morphology and develop stage-storage curves for a vernal pond. Additionally, we provide methodology for monitoring the water level, temperature, pH, oxidation-reduction potential, dissolved oxygen, and electrical conductivity of water in a vernal pond, as well as monitoring rainfall data. This information can be used to better quantify the ecosystem services that vernal ponds provide and the impacts of anthropogenic activities on their ability to provide these services.

Understanding the ecosystem services and processes provided by vernal ponds and the impacts of anthropogenic activities on their ability to provide these services requires intensive hydrologic monitoring. This sampling protocol using in-situ monitoring equipment was developed to understand the impact of anthropogenic activities on water levels and quality.

Vernal ponds, also referred to as vernal pools, provide critical ecosystem services and habitat for a variety of threatened and endangered species. ...

Laboratory and Field Protocol for Estimating Sheet Erosion Rates from Dendrogeomorphology

Sheet erosion is among the crucial drivers of soil degradation. Erosion is controlled by environmental factors and human activities, which often lead to severe environmental impacts. The understanding of sheet erosion is, consequently, a worldwide issue with implications for both environment and economies. However, the knowledge on how erosion evolves in space and time is still limited, as well as its effects on the environment. Below, we explain a new dendrogeomorphological protocol for deriving eroded soil thickness (Ex) by acquiring accurate microtopographic data using both terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and microtopographic profile gauges. Additionally, standard dendrogeomorphic procedures, dependent on anatomical variations in root rings, are utilized to establish the timing of exposure. Both TLS and microtopographic profile gauges are used to obtain ground surface pro&#64257;les, from which Ex is estimated after the threshold distance (TD) is determined, i.e., the distance between the root and the sediment knickpoint, which allows de&#64257;ning the lowering of the ground surface caused by sheet erosion. For each profile, we measured the height between the topside of the root and a virtual plane tangential to the ground surface. In this way, we intended to avoid small-scale impacts of soil deformation, which may be due to pressures exerted by the root system, or by the arrangement of exposed roots. This may provoke small amounts of soil sedimentation or erosion depending on how they physically affect the surface runoff. We demonstrate that an adequate microtopographic characterization of exposed roots and their associated ground surface is very valuable to obtain accurate erosion rates. This finding could be utilized to develop the best management practices designed to eventually halt or perhaps, at least, lessen soil erosion, so that more sustainable management policies can be put into practice.

Characterizing erosion from dendrogeomorphology has usually focused on accurately finding the starting time of root exposure, by examining macroscopic or cell level changes caused by exposure. Here, we offer a detailed description of different novel techniques to obtain more precise erosion rates from highly accurate microtopographic data.

Sheet erosion is among the crucial drivers of soil degradation. Erosion is controlled by environmental factors and human activities, which often lead to ...

Parameterizing V-notch Weir Equations for Flow Monitoring in a Drainage Control Structure

Accurate estimation of drainage discharge (flow rate or water volume per unit time) is essential for calculating nutrient loads delivered to surface water and assessing the performance of edge-of-field conservation practices. Determining drainage flow rates requires monitoring the head in a drainage control structure and applying an appropriate equation for the weir installed in the structure. Previous studies that developed calibrated equations for weirs in control structures have produced different equations (i.e., different weir flow equation coefficients) for the same type of weir and control structure size. This study describes procedures for setting up experimental water flow rate and head measurements within a drainage control structure and developing a weir equation for flows contained within a V-notch weir. Additionally, the procedure for obtaining a weir equation for overtopping flows -- when the water level exceeds the top of the V-notch weir -- is outlined. This process involves using the weir equation developed in the laboratory for a V-notch weir and an online tool, the &#34;Weir Flow Equation Coefficients Calculator&#34;, developed by the authors. The online tool can also generate weir flow equation coefficients for both V-notch-contained and overtopping flows across various sizes of Agri Drain water control structures, even when users lack site-specific flow rate vs. head relationship.

This protocol describes methods for obtaining weir flow equation coefficients for a V-notch weir within a drainage control structure using (1) a laboratory calibration procedure and (2) an online tool, the "Weir Flow Equation Coefficients Calculator", developed by the authors. These methods apply to flows contained within the V-notch and overtopping flows.

Accurate estimation of drainage discharge (flow rate or water volume per unit time) is essential for calculating nutrient loads delivered to surface water ...