The human heart is a hollow cone-shaped muscle that comprises three layers. The outermost layer is the epicardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and ...

The vascular system is a circulatory network of arteries and veins essential for maintaining homeostasis. The arteries carry oxygenated blood from the ...

The cardiac cycle occurs during a complete heartbeat and consists of three phases: diastole, atrial systole, and ventricular systole. The cardiac cycle ...

The cardiac conduction system produces and transmits electrical impulses that prompt myocardial contraction, ensuring efficient heart function. This ...

A cardiac action potential involves a series of electrical changes across the heart cell membrane, leading to contraction and relaxation. Nodal cells and ...

Cardiac Output Cardiac output (CO) refers to the total amount of blood ejected by one of the ventricles in liters per minute (L/min). In a resting adult, ...

Cardiac output (CO), the amount of blood the heart pumps per minute, is a parameter in cardiovascular physiology determined by stroke volume and heart ...

The regulation of the cardiovascular system is essential for maintaining homeostasis. This process involves the autonomic nervous system, baroreceptors, ...

Cardiovascular assessment involves gathering subjective data covering the following elements. First, ask the patient to verbalize about past medical and ...

Inspection is the first step in assessing the cardiovascular system, providing vital information about circulatory and cardiac health. Begin by placing ...

Palpation in cardiovascular examination assesses jugular pressure, maximal impulse, pulses, capillary refill, and edema. First, place the patient in a ...

Cardiac auscultation involves listening to heart sounds using a stethoscope. The normal heart sounds are S1 and S2 and are heard using the ...

Abnormal findings during the inspection and palpation of a cardiovascular examination include the following: First, examine for signs of distress, such as ...

Abnormal heart sounds such as S3 and S4 gallops, opening snaps, systolic clicks, and murmurs occur due to structural or functional issues during systole ...