Esta pesquisa foi financiada e conduzida sob a seção de avaliação de sistemas de Everglades do distrito de gestão de água de Florida sul.

1. preparação e transporte para o local de plantio
<ol><li>Obter 2 ou 3 mudas de gal (7 ou 11 L) de cultivados localmente árvores nativas (em potes de plástico), comerciais de sacos de turfa (medindo 0,3 x 0,46 x 0,6 m3), árvore e arbusto fertilizante picos, fita adesiva, tubo de cloreto de polivinila (PVC) (2 a 3 m de comprimento, diâmetro de 0,8 em (2,1 cm) Programe 40), caixa do cortador, sacos de lixo e uma haste metálica ou vergalhão (1 a 2 m de comprimento, 1,3 cm de diâmetro) para perfurar os sacos de turfa. Espécies de árvores potenciais aplicáveis aos Everglades são Annona glabra, Ficus aurea, e Acer rubrum. Luvas de trabalho é altamente recomendado.</li>
	<li>Determine a melhor localização para implantar os pop-ups, normalmente numa zona alta da ilha fantasma árvore pelo menos 0,3 m de turfa restantes acima do leito de rocha onde inundação poderia ser minimizada durante a estação chuvosa.</li>
	<li>Transporte de mudas, sacos de turfa comercial (um por rebento), árvore e arbusto picos de fertilizante (um por rebento), fita adesiva (número de rolos, conforme o caso), tubo de PVC (duas por rebento) e outras ferramentas e materiais para o local de plantio (normalmente por barco).</li>
</ol>2. pop-up Assembly
Nota: Montar o rebento em vaso e pop-up (passos 2.1-2.6) no barco antes de colocá-lo na água sobre a ilha de árvore (passo 3)
<ol><li>Deslizar o potenciômetro plástico fora o rebento raízes e solo de maconha e cortar um buraco grande na parte inferior do pote ou remover toda a parte inferior de cada pote de rebento usando um estilete ou tesoura (Figura 1).</li>
	<li>Deslize o potenciômetro com o fundo aberto sobre o rebento raízes e solo de pote para inserção dentro do saco de turfa.</li>
	<li>Fazer um 20 a 30 cm X em forma de corte (um pouco maior que o diâmetro do pote) dentro do saco de turfa no centro do que será a superfície superior, usando um estilete.</li>
	<li>Remova cerca de 2.000 a 5.000 cm3 (cerca de metade do volume do pote) do conteúdo do saco de turfa da abertura em forma de X e coloque em um saco de lixo para a remoção.</li>
	<li>Defina o pote sem fundo com o rebento dentro da X-depressão em forma de abertura/criado por retirar o saco de turfa turfa. A panela sem fundo deve estar na metade do caminho para baixo na abertura em forma de X, com os pontos (triângulos) apontando contra os lados do recipiente (Figura 2). As mudas são deixadas nos potenciômetros para fornecer adicional elevação e suporte físico.</li>
	<li>Segura o pote em lugar com vários enrolamentos de fita adesiva, em torno do pote e cobrindo os triângulos de saco. Isto irá apor os triângulos de saco para a panela (Figura 3) e mantenha a panela no lugar durante os próximos 2-3 anos de crescimento. Isso cria o pop-up.</li>
</ol>3. pop-implantação
<ol><li>Defina o pop-up na água. Entrar na água e mover o pop-up flutuante para o local de plantio.</li>
	<li>Amarrar o pop-up no lugar com dois aproximadamente 2 a 3 m longos comprimentos de tubo de PVC inseridos através do saco em ambos os lados do rebento, aproximadamente um terço a metade m do substrato (solo abaixo do saco) (Figura 3).</li>
	<li>Perfure os sacos na parte superior, inferior e os lados por condução a haste de metal (rebar) completamente através do saco, criando aberturas (pelo menos quatro na parte superior/inferior) e quatro em cada lado para permitir que a água para entrar e para permitir que as raízes a emergir (Figura 3). As pop-ups irão flutuar por aproximadamente 6 meses.</li>
	<li>Inserir uma árvore de espigão de fertilizante inteiramente na parte superior do saco em um dos locais mostrados na Figura 3.</li>
</ol>4. acompanhamento para manutenção, medições e remoção de plásticos
<ol><li>Retornar para o site como frequentemente se considerar necessário, particularmente seguinte severas tempestades e observe a condição e a sobrevivência e medir a altura da árvore e o diâmetro basal de cada árvore que restava numa base anual.</li>
	<li>Depois de 3 anos, retorno ao local com sacos de lixo e tesouras/cortadores caixa para remover os potenciômetros e o plástico do saco de turfa e reciclá-los. O pote e o plástico do saco (parte superior e os lados) são prontamente removidos sem perturbar o rebento; o plástico por baixo do saco de turfa pode não ser acessível (Figura 4).</li>
	<li>Retornar para o site em uma base anual para avaliar a sobrevivência e crescimento.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , (2002).</li><li>Wetzel, P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintaining+tree+islands+in+the+Florida+Everglades:+nutrient+redistribution+is+the+key.">Maintaining tree islands in the Florida Everglades: nutrient redistribution is the key.</a> Front Ecol Environ. 3 (7), 370-376 (2005).</li><li>Aich, S., Ewe, S. M. L., Gu, B., Dreschel, T. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+evaluation+of+peat+loss+from+an+Everglades+tree+island,+Florida,+USA.">An evaluation of peat loss from an Everglades tree island, Florida, USA.</a> Mires and Peat. 14 (2014), 1-15 (2014).</li><li>Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E. A., Hill, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everglades+tree+island+restoration:+testing+a+simple+tree+planting+technique+patterned+after+a+natural+process.">Everglades tree island restoration: testing a simple tree planting technique patterned after a natural process.</a> Restor Ecol. , (2017).</li><li>Stanturf, J. A., Conner, W. H., Gardiner, E. S., Schweitzer, C. J., Ezell, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recognizing+and+Overcoming+Difficult+Site+Conditions+for+Afforestation+of+Bottomland+Hardwoods.">Recognizing and Overcoming Difficult Site Conditions for Afforestation of Bottomland Hardwoods.</a> Ecol Restor. 22 (3), 183-193 (2004).</li><li>Sharitz, R., Barton, C. D., DeSteven, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tree+Plantings+in+Depression+Wetland+Restorations+Show+Mixed+Success+(South+Carolina).">Tree Plantings in Depression Wetland Restorations Show Mixed Success (South Carolina).</a> Ecol Restor. 24 (2), 114-115 (2006).</li><li>Brandt, L. A., Portier, K. M., Kitchens, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patterns+of+Change+in+Tree+Islands+in+Arthur+R.+Marshall+Loxahatchee+National+Wildlife+Refuge+from+1950-1991.">Patterns of Change in Tree Islands in Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge from 1950-1991.</a> Wetlands. 20 (1), 1-14 (2000).</li><li>Armentano, T. V., Jones, D. T., Ross, M. S., Gamble, B. W., Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vegetation+pattern+and+process+in+tree+islands+of+the+southern+Everglades+and+adjacent+areas.">Vegetation pattern and process in tree islands of the southern Everglades and adjacent areas.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , 225-281 (2002).</li><li>Jones, D. T., Sah, J. P., Ross, M. S., Oberbauer, S. F., Hwang, B., Jayachandran, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+and+physiological+responses+of+twelve+tree+species+common+in+Everglades+tree+islands+to+simulated+hydrologic+regimes.">Growth and physiological responses of twelve tree species common in Everglades tree islands to simulated hydrologic regimes.</a> Wetlands. 26 (3), 830-844 (2006).</li><li>Stoffella, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+growth+responses+of+eight+Everglades+tree+species+along+an+experimental+hydrological+gradient+on+two+tree+island+types.">Survival and growth responses of eight Everglades tree species along an experimental hydrological gradient on two tree island types.</a> Appl Veg Sci. 13 (4), 439-449 (2010).</li><li>Aich, S., Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E., Sklar, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+of+a+geographic+information+system+(GIS)+to+document+research+in+an+Everglades+physical+Model.">The development of a geographic information system (GIS) to document research in an Everglades physical Model.</a> J Environ Sci Eng. 5 (2011), 289-302 (2011).</li><li>Weinbaum, S. A., Johnson, R. S., DeJong, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Causes+and+Consequences+of+Overfertilization+in+Orchards.">Causes and Consequences of Overfertilization in Orchards.</a> HortTechnology. 2 (1), 112-121 (1992).</li></ol>

Este trabalho foi realizado sob o financiamento e a supervisão do distrito de gestão de água de Florida do Sul, uma agência do estado da Flórida. Florida goza de uma lei de registros públicos amplo. Este documento está sujeito a essa lei e consideradas como parte do registro público.

Esta abordagem proposta para replantação ilhas árvore permite o aumento da elevação e a implantação de árvores de um aerobarco sem a construção de estradas necessárias para trazer o preenchimento para cada site. Isso minimiza o custo e a perturbação de implementar árvore ilha plantings.
Um problema com esta técnica é os problemas estéticos e ambientais associados com a colocação de uma grande quantidade de tubos de PVC, sacos de plástico e potes de plástico em um recurso d...

Recolonização natural das ilhas de árvore Everglade degradadas por espécies nativas é possível através da dispersão de sementes, se houver nas proximidades de ilhas com uma diversidade de espécies de árvore1,2. De acordo com Sklar e van der Valk1 restaurar árvore severamente interrompidos ilhas pode ser possível, "por aumentar a elevação de suas cabeças, embora tais esforços seria caros e mão de obra intensiva." Atualmente, existem muito poucas árvores nativas (desejáveis) presentes perto das Ilhas degradadas de árvore (também conhecido como "fantasma") em área de conservação da água da Everglades (WCA)-2A (um dos cinco WCAs criado para armazenar a água para e evitar a inundação da envolvente urbana e zonas agrícolas) para fornecer as sementes necessárias para a recolonização da árvore degradadas ilhas3.
Para aumentar a elevação de uma ilha de árvore retrocedeu para o reflorestamento, preenchimento adequado teria que ser transportado para a ilha. Isso exigiria a construção de estradas para caminhões ou criação de vias navegáveis para barcaças, levando a graves danos para os Everglades com um grande custo financeiro. Uma técnica simples, de baixo custo é necessário para repovoar ilhas árvore degradadas com espécies nativas que irão fornecer a elevação (reduzir hidroperíodo) e melhorar a sobrevivência sob a variável hidrologia endémica do Everglades4.
O tamanho desses pop-ups permite a facilidade de transporte para o local de plantio. Isso proporciona uma vantagem em relação ao preenchimento das áreas convencional e plantio de árvores que podem exigir estradas ser construído para o transporte. Esta técnica, portanto, reduz o impacto ecológico da atividade de plantio de árvores. Além disso, esses pop-ups têm a capacidade de flutuar para o inicial seis meses após a implantação, para permitir o estabelecimento do rebento. Sob cenários de plantação de árvores convencionais, as árvores podem experimentar maior estresse de inundação durante o estabelecimento se aumento dos níveis de água.
Um número de projetos foram testado e determinou-se que maior altura de pop-up (orientação de saco), uma árvore de espigão de fertilizante para adicionar nutrientes e plantar o pop-up com um único rebento alcançado a melhor configuração para implantação em cima de um Everglade degradado Ilha de árvore4. Embora outros pesquisadores descrevem o plantio de árvores para a restauração de florestas húmidas áreas5,6, a nosso conhecimento, nenhuma das técnicas plantio descritas adicionado elevação para reduzir hidroperíodo.
Este processo imita a formação de ilhas de árvore de Everglades que surgem a partir de turfa que rompe com a base e flutua à superfície de flutuação. Plantas de montanha podem estabelecer para formar uma ilha flutuante ou "pop-up" árvore que eventualmente se move e liquida até a superfície de turfa e torna-se o que é denominada uma "bateria" árvore ilha1,7.
Espécies de árvores da ilha de árvore Everglades têm diferentes tolerâncias a inundação para crescimento e sobrevivência de9,8,10. Em um estudo controlado, Jones et al demonstrou a importância do hidroperíodo para a sobrevivência da árvore de Everglades a ilha espécie9. Stoffella et al encontrou que a elevação relativa (a superfície da água) tiveram variados e profundos efeitos na sobrevivência de espécies de árvores nativas plantadas e crescimento, devido a tolerância específica de cada espécie a inundação10. Espécie de árvore pode ser selecionado para as condições específicas do presentes. A arborização técnica descrita aqui pode fornecer elevação adicional e, consequentemente, fontes de sementes de árvore nas regiões anteriormente florestadas que perderam a elevação e estão agora sujeitos a um ambiente de inundação que é prejudicial para espécies nativas.
Anteriormente regiões arborizadas que experiência hydroperiods estendida podem se beneficiar deste método de reintroduzir espécies lenhosas para estas áreas. Esta técnica proporciona elevação, reduzindo assim o hidroperíodo. Além disso, as árvores construir solo (biomassa de raiz e folha) e fornecer uma fonte de sementes para a colonização contínua da área.

<table><tbody><tr><td>One or Two Gallon Native Tree Saplings in plastic pots.</td><td>Local Native Plant Nurseries</td><td>N/A</td><td>Obtain native tree saplings grown from locally obtained seed</td></tr><tr><td>Commercial Peat Bags. 5 cubic ft.</td><td>Lambert</td><td>Lambert Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss (6649801115)</td><td>Product description: Lambert peat moss is an excellent soil amendment because of its capacity to retain water, aerate the soil and it is completely natural. All of Lambert&#039;s peat moss packages carry the OMRI (Organic Material Review Institute) logo, which indicates that they are approved for use in organic production. Size: 5.5 cu.ft.</td></tr><tr><td>Vigoro Tree Spikes (Tree and Shrub Fertilizer Spikes, 15-Count)</td><td>Vigoro, Swiss Farms Products Inc.</td><td>Model # 154205</td><td>GUARANTEED ANALYSIS (%) TOTAL IN PRODUCT (ppm): Total Nitrogen (N) 12.0000; Available Phosphoric Acid (P2O5) 5.0000; Soluble Potash (K2O) 7.0000</td></tr><tr><td>PVC Pipe: 1/2 in schedule 40</td><td>JM Eagle</td><td>Model # 67447</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Duct Tape, 1-7/8 in x 12 yds</td><td>MSC Industrial Supply</td><td>Gorilla Heavy-Duty Duct Tape, Model # 60012</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Metal Rod (Rebar 1.3 cm diameter, 1.2 m long)</td><td>Weyerhaeuser</td><td>Model # 35616</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Box Cutter</td><td>Stanley</td><td>Model # STHT10273</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Work Gloves</td><td>Firm Grip</td><td>Model # 3101-96</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Trash Bags (42 gallon)</td><td>HUSKY</td><td>Model # HK42WC050B</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr></tbody></table>

a simple planting technique for re-establishing trees where frequent inundation occurs

Muitas das ilhas de árvore Everglades perderam elevação ao longo do século passado e a maioria de suas árvores morreram tal que agora estão cobertas com plantas herbáceas. Este protocolo descreve uma técnica necessária para restaurar degradadas Everglade árvore ilhas de plantio de árvores simples e econômica. O design é modelado após um Everglades processo natural que cria ilhas flutuantes de turfa, que permite o crescimento e sobrevivência de árvore em condições inundadas e muitas vezes leva ao desenvolvimento de ilhas de árvore. Sacos de turfa disponíveis comercialmente foram usados como o meio para o crescimento e o estabelecimento de mudas de árvores nativas em vasos. A configuração de pop-up flutuou inicialmente e fornecido elevação adicional para minimizar a inundação, com um rebento de espécies de árvores nativas e uma única árvore de espigão de fertilizante. Durante um estudo de 3 anos envolvendo 105 pop-ups, a maioria das plantas sobreviveram (80%) e muitos prosperaram. Determinar se essa técnica pode estabelecer árvores numa ilha de árvore degradadas exigirá mais estudos e testes de campo extenso.

O estudo usando esta técnica4 foi realizado dentro de um 0.32 km2 modelo físico Everglades11, sobre um cume para simular testes em uma ilha de árvore fantasma. Durante este estudo, duas orientações para a altura do saco (baixa: 0.3 m, alta: 0,46 m), com um contra duas mudas por saco crescendo, foram testados bem como o uso de árvore picos de fertilizantes para promover a sobrevivência e crescimento. Três espécies de mudas...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs at JoVE.com

A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

Este protocolo descreve uma técnica para a restauração de ilhas de árvore Everglades degradadas que experimentam a inundação de plantio de árvores simples e econômica. O projeto cria uma ilha (pop-up) que flutua inicialmente e adiciona a elevação para promover a sobrevivência da árvore e crescimento sob condições inundadas.

Uma simples técnica de plantação para restabelecer as árvores onde ocorre a inundação frequente

Many of the Everglades tree islands have lost elevation over the past century and most of their trees have died such that they are now covered with ...

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Universidad San Sebastian

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

6.1K visualizações.  South Florida Water Management District. Este protocolo descreve uma técnica para a restauração de ilhas de árvore Everglades degradadas que experimentam a inundação de plantio de árvores simples e econômica. O projeto cria uma ilha (pop-up) que flutua inicialmente e adiciona a elevação para promover a sobrevivência da árvore e crescimento sob condições inundadas.

Vídeo: A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

A Venturi Effect Can Help Cure Our Trees

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. According to these factors and their dynamics, small amounts of sap-compatible liquids (i.e. pesticides) can be injected into the xylem system, reaching their target from inside. This endotherapic method, called &#34;trunk injection&#34; or &#34;trunk infusion&#34; (depending on whether the user supplies an external pressure or not), confines the applied chemicals only within the target tree, thereby making it particularly useful in urban situations. The main factors limiting wider use of the traditional drilling methods are related to negative side effects of the holes that must be drilled around the trunk circumference in order to gain access to the xylem vessels beneath the bark.
The University of Padova (Italy) recently developed a manual, drill-free instrument with a small, perforated blade that enters the trunk by separating the woody fibers with minimal friction. Furthermore, the lenticular shaped blade reduces the vessels&#39; cross section, increasing sap velocity and allowing the natural uptake of an external liquid up to the leaves, when transpiration rate is substantial. Ports partially close soon after the removal of the blade due to the natural elasticity and turgidity of the plant tissues, and the cambial activity completes the healing process in few weeks.

Compared to the more traditional hole-based methods, most of which require the tree to be drilled, tools with lenticular blades transform the basics of endotherapy easing the closure of the wound and allowing the natural uptake of the solutions.

Um Efeito Venturi pode ajudar a curar nossas árvores

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. ...

Ambiente

Design and Construction of an Urban Runoff Research Facility

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use due to increased demand for landscape irrigation. Improper irrigation practices and large rainfall events can result in runoff from urban landscapes which has potential to carry nutrients and sediments into local streams and lakes where they may contribute to eutrophication. A 1,000 m2 facility was constructed which consists of 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots, each equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated urban landscapes. Runoff volumes from the first and second trials had coefficient of variability (CV) values of 38.2 and 28.7%, respectively. CV values for runoff pH, EC, and Na concentration for both trials were all under 10%. Concentrations of DOC, TDN, DON, PO4-P, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ had CV values less than 50% in both trials. Overall, the results of testing performed after sod installation at the facility indicated good uniformity between plots for runoff volumes and chemical constituents. The large plot size is sufficient to include much of the natural variability and therefore provides better simulation of urban landscape ecosystems.

This paper describes the design, construction, and function of a 1,000 m2 facility containing 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated home lawns.

Projeto e Construção de um Mecanismo de Pesquisa escoamento urbano

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use ...

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may be treated with simple systems designed to promote sorption of contaminants to vegetation and soils and promote infiltration. Two example systems are described: a bioswale treatment system for urban stormwater treatment, and a vegetated drainage ditch for treating agriculture irrigation runoff. Both have similar attributes that reduce contaminant loading in runoff: vegetation that results in sorption of the contaminants to the soil and plant surfaces, and water infiltration. These systems may also include the integration of granulated activated carbon as a polishing step to remove residual contaminants. Implementation of these systems in agriculture and urban watersheds requires system monitoring to verify treatment efficacy. This includes chemical monitoring for specific contaminants responsible for toxicity. The current paper emphasizes monitoring of current use pesticides since these are responsible for surface water toxicity to aquatic invertebrates.

This article summarizes the design attributes and the effectiveness of treatment systems that treat urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff to remove pesticides and other contaminants associated with aquatic toxicity.

Vegetated Sistemas de Tratamento para Remoção de Contaminantes Associados à Toxicidade de Águas Superfícies na Agricultura e Escorrências Urbanas

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may ...

A Method for Quantifying Foliage-Dwelling Arthropods

Terrestrial arthropods play an important role in our environment. Quantifying arthropods in a way that allows for a precise index or estimates of density requires a method with high detection probability and a known sampling area. While most described methods provide a qualitative or semi-quantitative estimate adequate for describing species presence, richness, and diversity, few provide an adequately consistent detection probability and known or consistent sampling areas to provide an index or estimate with adequate precision to detect differences in abundance across environmental, spatial, or temporal variables. We describe how to quantify leaf-dwelling arthropods by sealing the leaves and end of branches in a bag, clipping and freezing the bagged material, and rinsing the previously frozen material in water to separate arthropods from the substrate and quantify them. As we demonstrate, this method can be used at a landscape scale to quantify leaf-dwelling arthropods with adequate precision to test for and describe how spatial, temporal, environmental, and ecological variables influence arthropod richness and abundance. This method allowed us to detect differences in density, richness, and diversity of leaf-dwelling arthropods among 5 genera of trees commonly found in southeastern deciduous forests.

We describe how to quantify leaf dwelling arthropods by sealing the leaves and end of branches in a bag, clipping and freezing the bagged material, and rinsing the previously frozen material in water to separate arthropods from the substrate for quantification.

Um método para quantificar artrópodes da folhagem-habitação

Terrestrial arthropods play an important role in our environment. Quantifying arthropods in a way that allows for a precise index or estimates of density ...

Using Tree-Rings to Reconstruct Fire History Information from Forested Areas

Annual tree-ring patterns are a source of ecological and environmental information including the history of fires in forested areas. Tree-ring based fire histories include three fundamental phases: field collection, laboratory methods (preparation and dating), and data analysis. Here we provide step-by-step instructions and issues to consider, including the process for selecting the study area, sampling sites, plus how and which fire-scarred trees to sample. In addition, we describe fire-scar sample preparation and dating which are done in the laboratory. Finally, we describe basic analysis and relevant results, including examples from studies that have reconstructed fire history patterns. These studies allow us to understand the historical fire frequency, changes in those frequencies related to anthropogenic factors, and analyzes of how climate influences fire occurrence over time. The description of these methods and techniques should provide a greater understanding of fire history studies that will benefit researchers, educators, technicians, and students interested in this field. These detailed methods will allow new researchers to this field, a resource to start their own work and achieve greater success. This resource will provide a greater integration of tree-ring aspects within other studies and lead to a better understanding of natural processes with forested ecosystems.

This work explains the most appropriate techniques and methods for conducting a fire history study from beginning site selection to final analysis of fire-climate relationship.

Annual tree-ring patterns are a source of ecological and environmental information including the history of fires in forested areas. Tree-ring based fire ...

A Method to Preserve Wetland Roots and Rhizospheres for Elemental Imaging

Roots extensively interact with their soil environment but visualizing such interactions between roots and the surrounding rhizosphere is challenging. The rhizosphere chemistry of wetland plants is particularly challenging to capture because of steep oxygen gradients from the roots to the bulk soil. Here a protocol is described that effectively preserves root structure and rhizosphere chemistry of wetland plants through slam-freezing and freeze drying. Slam-freezing, where the sample is frozen between copper blocks pre-cooled with liquid nitrogen, minimizes root damage and sample distortion that can occur with flash-freezing while still minimizing chemical speciation changes. While sample distortion is still possible, the ability to obtain multiple samples quickly and with minimal cost increases the potential to obtain satisfactory samples and optimizes imaging time. The data show that this method is successful in preserving reduced arsenic species in rice roots and rhizospheres associated with iron plaques. This method can be adopted for studies of plant-soil relationships in a wide variety of wetland environments that span concentration ranges from trace-element cycling to phytoremediation applications.

We describe a protocol to sample, preserve, and section intact roots and the surrounding rhizosphere soil from wetland environments using rice (Oryza sativa L.) as a model species. Once preserved, the sample can be analyzed using elemental imaging techniques, such as synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (XRF) chemical speciation imaging.

Um método para preservar raízes úmidas e rizosferas para imagem elementar

Roots extensively interact with their soil environment but visualizing such interactions between roots and the surrounding rhizosphere is challenging. The ...

Inoculation Strategies to Infect Plant Roots with Soil-Borne Microorganisms

The rhizosphere harbors a highly complex microbial community in which plant roots are constantly challenged. Roots are in close contact with a wide variety of microorganisms, but studies on soil-borne interactions are still behind those performed on aboveground organs. Although some inoculation strategies for infecting model plants with model root pathogens are described in the literature, it remains difficult to get a comprehensive methodological overview. To address this problem, three different root inoculation systems are precisely described that can be applied to gain insights into the biology of root-microbe interactions. For illustration, Verticillium species (namely, V. longisporum and V. dahliae) were employed as root invading model pathogens. However, the methods can be easily adapted to other root colonizing microbes - both pathogenic and beneficial. By colonizing the plant xylem, vascular soil-borne fungi such as Verticillium spp. exhibit a unique lifestyle. After root invasion, they spread via the xylem vessels acropetally, reach the shoot, and elicit disease symptoms. Three representative plant species were chosen as model hosts: Arabidopsis thaliana, economically important oilseed rape (Brassica napus), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Step-by-step protocols are given. Representative results of pathogenicity assays, transcriptional analyses of marker genes, and independent confirmations by reporter constructs are shown. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of each inoculation system are thoroughly discussed. These proven protocols can assist in providing approaches for research questions on root-microbe interactions. Knowing how plants cope with microbes in the soil is crucial for developing new strategies to improve agriculture.

This protocol presents a detailed summary of strategies to inoculate plant roots with soil-borne microbes. Exemplified for the fungi Verticillium longisporum and Verticillium dahliae, three different root infection systems are described. Potential applications and possible downstream analyses are highlighted, and advantages or disadvantages are discussed for each system.

Estratégias de inoculação para infectar raízes vegetais com microrganismos transportados pelo solo

The rhizosphere harbors a highly complex microbial community in which plant roots are constantly challenged. Roots are in close contact with a wide ...

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture data has been slow due to inconsistent data collection, poor standardization, and typically short record duration. Soil moisture, or quantitatively volumetric soil water content (SWC), is measured using buried, in situ sensors that infer SWC from an electromagnetic response. This signal can vary considerably with local site conditions such as clay content and mineralogy, soil salinity or bulk electrical conductivity, and soil temperature; each of these can have varying impacts depending on the sensor technology.
Furthermore, poor soil contact and sensor degradation can affect the quality of these readings over time. Unlike more traditional environmental sensors, there are no accepted standards, maintenance practices, or quality controls for SWC data. As such, SWC is a challenging measurement for many environmental monitoring networks to implement. Here, we attempt to establish a community-based standard of practice for in situ SWC sensors so that future research and applications have consistent guidance on site selection, sensor installation, data interpretation, and long-term maintenance of monitoring stations.
The videography focuses on a multi-agency consensus of best-practices and recommendations for the installation of in situ SWC sensors. This paper presents an overview of this protocol along with the various steps essential for high-quality and long-term SWC data collection. This protocol will be of use to scientists and engineers hoping to deploy a single station or an entire network.

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

The determination of soil water content is a critical mission requirement for many state and federal agencies. This protocol synthesizes multi-agency efforts to measure soil water content using buried in situ sensors.

In situ Sensores de umidade do solo em solos não perturbados

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture ...

Field Collection and Laboratory Maintenance of Canopy-Forming Giant Kelp to Facilitate Restoration

Canopy-forming kelps are essential foundation species, supporting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services valued at more than USD$500 billion annually. The global decline of giant kelp forests due to climate-driven ecological stressors underscores the need for innovative restoration strategies. An emerging restoration technique known as &#39;green gravel&#39; aims to seed young kelps over large areas without extensive underwater labor and represents a promising restoration tool due to cost-effectiveness and scalability. This video article illustrates a protocol and tools for culturing giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera. It also provides a resource for further studies to address the successes and limitations of this method in field settings. We outline field and laboratory-based methods for collecting reproductive tissue, sporulating, inoculating, rearing, maintaining, and monitoring substrates seeded with early life stages using the &#39;green gravel&#39;&#160;technique. The protocol simplifies and centralizes current restoration practices in this field to support researchers, managers, and stakeholders in meeting kelp conservation objectives.

This protocol describes the field collection and regular laboratory maintenance of substrates seeded with canopy-forming giant kelp for use in restoration trials to address the success and limitations of the 'green gravel' technique in field settings.

Coleta de campo e manutenção laboratorial de algas gigantes formadoras de dossel para facilitar a restauração

Canopy-forming kelps are essential foundation species, supporting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services valued at more than USD$500 billion ...

Responses to Drought and Flooding

Water plays a significant role in the life cycle of plants. However, insufficient or excess of water can be detrimental and pose a serious threat to plants.

Under normal conditions, water taken up by the plant evaporates from leaves and other parts in a process called transpiration. In times of drought stress, water that evaporates by transpiration far exceeds the water absorbed from the soil, causing plants to wilt. The general plant response to drought stress is the synthesis of hormone abscisic acid that keeps stomata closed and reduces transpiration. Additionally, plants may respond to extreme water insufficiency by shedding leaves. This method, however, reduces photosynthesis and consequently hampers plant growth.

Mitigation of drought stress in plants by microbes

Drought stress limits the growth and productivity of plants in arid and semi-arid regions. However, certain microbes present in the vicinity of plants may release physical and chemical signals that induce changes related to plant defense under drought conditions. For example, the soil bacterium Paenibacillus polymyx is reported to induce drought tolerance in Arabidopsis. The most significant effect of this bacteria was observed in the growth of legumes under water stress. Leguminous plants depend on soil rhizobium for nitrogen fixation - but rhizobia are extremely sensitive to drought stress, resulting in very low nitrogen fixation. However, soil mixed with P. polymyx resulted in increased nitrogen fixation by rhizobium and increased growth of the bean plant.

Excess water is equally as disastrous to plants as a lack of water. Too much water can suffocate plants by reducing air spaces in the soil, thereby restricting oxygen needed for cellular respiration. Certain woody plant species respond to flood conditions by developing hypertrophic growth that appears as swelling of tissues at the stem base. This hypertrophic growth may aid in the downward diffusion of oxygen as well as potential venting of toxic compounds (carbon dioxide, methane, and ethanol) formed from anaerobic metabolism. Other adaptive responses to flood stress include the formation of adventitious roots, increases in root porosity via specialized cells called aerenchyma cells, and a suberized exodermis to prevent loss of oxygen.

Plant Responses to Drought and Floods

Respostas à Seca e às Inundações

Water plays a significant role in the life cycle of plants. However, insufficient or excess of water can be detrimental and pose a serious threat to ...