Esta investigación fue financiada y realizada bajo la sección de evaluación de sistemas de Everglades del South Florida Water Management District.

1. preparación y transporte al lugar de plantación
<ol><li>Obtener 2 o 3 gal (7 u 11 L) plantones de las especies cultivadas localmente árboles nativos (en macetas de plástico), bolsas de turba (que mide 0.3 x 0.46 x 0,6 m3), picos de árboles y arbustos fertilizantes comerciales, cinta, tubería de cloruro de polivinilo (PVC) (2 a 3 m de largo, 0,8 pulgadas (2,1 cm) diámetro de conducto programar 40), la caja de corte, bolsas de basura y una barra de metal o barras de refuerzo (1 a 2 m de largo, 1,3 cm de diámetro) para pinchar las bolsas de turba. Especies de árbol potencial aplicables a los Everglades son Annona glabra, Ficus aurea, y Acer rubrum. Se recomienda usar guantes de trabajo.</li>
	<li>Determinar la mejor ubicación para desplegar los pop-ups, normalmente en una zona alta de la isla del árbol fantasma con por lo menos 0,3 m de la turba queda sobre el lecho de roca donde se minimizaría la inundación durante la estación lluviosa.</li>
	<li>Transporte de plantones, bolsas de turba comercial (uno por árbol joven), árboles y arbustos de pinchos de fertilizante (1 por joven), cinta adhesiva para conductos (número de rodillos según sea el caso), tubo de PVC (dos por pimpollo) y otras herramientas y materiales a la ubicación de la plantación (normalmente por airboat).</li>
</ol>2. Ensamble
Nota: Montar el arbolito en maceta y pop-up (pasos 2.1-2.6) en el barco antes de poner en el agua sobre la isla del árbol (paso 3)
<ol><li>Deslice el pote plástico las raíces de plantones y sustrato y cortar un agujero grande en la parte inferior de la olla o quitar el fondo entero de cada olla de pimpollo con un cúter o tijeras (figura 1).</li>
	<li>Deslice el bote con el fondo abierto en las raíces de plantones y sustrato para la inserción en la bolsa de turba.</li>
	<li>Hacer un 20-30 cm en forma de X corte (un poco más grande que el diámetro de la olla) en la bolsa de turba en el centro de lo que será la superficie superior, usando un cortador de la caja.</li>
	<li>Quite de 2.000 a 5.000 cm3 (aproximadamente la mitad del volumen de la olla) el contenido de la bolsa de turba de la abertura en forma de X y el lugar en una bolsa de basura para el retiro.</li>
	<li>Coloque la olla sin fondo con la joven dentro de la abertura, depresión en forma de X creada mediante la eliminación de la turba de la bolsa de turba. El bote sin fondo debe ser sobre a medio camino abajo de la abertura en forma de X, con los puntos (triángulos) apuntando contra los lados de la maceta (figura 2). Los arbolitos se dejan en las macetas para proporcionar elevación adicional y soporte físico.</li>
	<li>Fijar el bote en su lugar con varias bobinas de cinta alrededor de la olla y cubrir los triángulos de la bolsa. Esto colocar los triángulos de la bolsa a la olla (figura 3) y mantener el bote en su lugar durante los próximos 2-3 años de crecimiento. Esto crea la ventana emergente.</li>
</ol>3. emergente despliegue
<ol><li>Sistema pop-up en el agua. Entrar en el agua y mover la ventana emergente flotante al sitio de plantación.</li>
	<li>Atar el pop-up en su lugar con dos aproximadamente de 2 a 3 m largos de tubería de PVC se insertan a través de la bolsa a cada lado de la joven, en aproximadamente un tercio a media m del sustrato (suelo debajo de la bolsa) (figura 3).</li>
	<li>Pinchar las bolsas en la parte superior, inferior y lados por conducir la varilla (varilla) completamente a través de la bolsa, creando aberturas (por lo menos cuatro en la parte superior/parte inferior) y cuatro en cada lado para permitir que el agua para entrar y para permitir que las raíces que emergen (figura 3). Los pop-ups flotará alrededor de 6 meses.</li>
	<li>Inserte una espiga de fertilizantes árbol enteramente en la parte superior de la bolsa en uno de los lugares indicados en la figura 3.</li>
</ol>4. seguimiento de mantenimiento, mediciones y la eliminación de plásticos
<ol><li>Volver al sitio con tanta frecuencia que considere necesaria, particularmente siguientes tormentas severas y tenga en cuenta la condición y la supervivencia y medir la altura del árbol y diámetro basal de cada árbol restante sobre una base anual.</li>
	<li>Después de 3 años, volver al sitio con caja cuchillas/tijeras y bolsas de basura para quitar los botes y el plástico de la turba del bolso y reciclan. El pote y el plástico de la bolsa (parte superior y lados) se quitan fácilmente sin molestar a la joven; el plástico debajo de la bolsa de turba puede no ser accesible (figura 4).</li>
	<li>Volver al sitio sobre una base anual para evaluar el crecimiento y la supervivencia.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , (2002).</li><li>Wetzel, P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintaining+tree+islands+in+the+Florida+Everglades:+nutrient+redistribution+is+the+key.">Maintaining tree islands in the Florida Everglades: nutrient redistribution is the key.</a> Front Ecol Environ. 3 (7), 370-376 (2005).</li><li>Aich, S., Ewe, S. M. L., Gu, B., Dreschel, T. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+evaluation+of+peat+loss+from+an+Everglades+tree+island,+Florida,+USA.">An evaluation of peat loss from an Everglades tree island, Florida, USA.</a> Mires and Peat. 14 (2014), 1-15 (2014).</li><li>Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E. A., Hill, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everglades+tree+island+restoration:+testing+a+simple+tree+planting+technique+patterned+after+a+natural+process.">Everglades tree island restoration: testing a simple tree planting technique patterned after a natural process.</a> Restor Ecol. , (2017).</li><li>Stanturf, J. A., Conner, W. H., Gardiner, E. S., Schweitzer, C. J., Ezell, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recognizing+and+Overcoming+Difficult+Site+Conditions+for+Afforestation+of+Bottomland+Hardwoods.">Recognizing and Overcoming Difficult Site Conditions for Afforestation of Bottomland Hardwoods.</a> Ecol Restor. 22 (3), 183-193 (2004).</li><li>Sharitz, R., Barton, C. D., DeSteven, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tree+Plantings+in+Depression+Wetland+Restorations+Show+Mixed+Success+(South+Carolina).">Tree Plantings in Depression Wetland Restorations Show Mixed Success (South Carolina).</a> Ecol Restor. 24 (2), 114-115 (2006).</li><li>Brandt, L. A., Portier, K. M., Kitchens, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patterns+of+Change+in+Tree+Islands+in+Arthur+R.+Marshall+Loxahatchee+National+Wildlife+Refuge+from+1950-1991.">Patterns of Change in Tree Islands in Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge from 1950-1991.</a> Wetlands. 20 (1), 1-14 (2000).</li><li>Armentano, T. V., Jones, D. T., Ross, M. S., Gamble, B. W., Sklar, F. H., van der Valk, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vegetation+pattern+and+process+in+tree+islands+of+the+southern+Everglades+and+adjacent+areas.">Vegetation pattern and process in tree islands of the southern Everglades and adjacent areas.</a> Tree Islands of the Everglades. , 225-281 (2002).</li><li>Jones, D. T., Sah, J. P., Ross, M. S., Oberbauer, S. F., Hwang, B., Jayachandran, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+and+physiological+responses+of+twelve+tree+species+common+in+Everglades+tree+islands+to+simulated+hydrologic+regimes.">Growth and physiological responses of twelve tree species common in Everglades tree islands to simulated hydrologic regimes.</a> Wetlands. 26 (3), 830-844 (2006).</li><li>Stoffella, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+growth+responses+of+eight+Everglades+tree+species+along+an+experimental+hydrological+gradient+on+two+tree+island+types.">Survival and growth responses of eight Everglades tree species along an experimental hydrological gradient on two tree island types.</a> Appl Veg Sci. 13 (4), 439-449 (2010).</li><li>Aich, S., Dreschel, T. W., Cline, E., Sklar, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+development+of+a+geographic+information+system+(GIS)+to+document+research+in+an+Everglades+physical+Model.">The development of a geographic information system (GIS) to document research in an Everglades physical Model.</a> J Environ Sci Eng. 5 (2011), 289-302 (2011).</li><li>Weinbaum, S. A., Johnson, R. S., DeJong, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Causes+and+Consequences+of+Overfertilization+in+Orchards.">Causes and Consequences of Overfertilization in Orchards.</a> HortTechnology. 2 (1), 112-121 (1992).</li></ol>

Este trabajo fue realizado bajo financiamiento y supervisión de la South Florida Water Management District, una agencia del estado de la Florida. La Florida goza de una ley de registros públicos amplios. Este documento está sujeto a esa ley y considerado como parte del registro público.

Este enfoque propuesto a replantar islas de árbol permite el aumento en la elevación y distribución de los árboles de un hidrodeslizador sin la construcción de carreteras requerida traer llenado a cada sitio. Esto minimiza el costo y el disturbio de la implementación de plantaciones de la isla del árbol.
Un problema con esta técnica es los problemas estéticos y ambientales asociados con poner una gran cantidad de tubos de PVC, bolsas de plástico y envases de plástico en una caracter...

Recolonización natural de islas de árboles Everglade degradadas por árboles de especies nativas es posible a través de la dispersión de semillas si hay cerca de las islas con una diversidad de especies de árbol1,2. Según Sklar y van der Valk1 restauración de islas árbol desplomado severamente puede ser posible, "por"elevar la elevación de la cabeza, aunque esos esfuerzos sería costosos y trabajo. Actualmente, hay muy pocos árboles nativos (deseables) presentes cerca de las islas de árbol (también conocido como "fantasma") degradadas en área de conservación de agua de Everglades (WCA)-2A (uno de cinco WCAs creó para almacenar el agua para evitar inundaciones de entorno urbano y áreas agrícolas) para proporcionar las semillas para recolonizar el árbol degradado islas3.
Para elevar la altura de una isla del árbol desplomado para reforestación, llenado adecuado tendría que ser transportado a la isla. Esto requeriría la construcción de carreteras para los camiones o la creación de vías fluviales para barcazas, llevando a daño severo a los Everglades con un gran costo financiero. Una técnica simple y de bajo costo es necesario repoblar islas árbol degradadas con especies nativas de árboles que proporcionarán elevación (reducir el gradiente) y mejorar la supervivencia en la variable Hidrología endémica de los Everglades4.
El tamaño de estas ventanas emergentes permite la facilidad de transporte al sitio de plantación. Esto proporciona una ventaja en comparación con el relleno de las áreas convencionales y plantación de árboles que pueden requerir caminos ser construido para el transporte. Así, esta técnica reduce el impacto ecológico de la actividad de plantación de árboles. Además, estas ventanas emergentes tienen la capacidad de flotar de los seis meses después de la implementación, para permitir el establecimiento de la joven. Bajo escenarios de plantación de árboles convencionales, los árboles pueden experimentar estrés inundación mayor durante el establecimiento si el nivel del agua sube.
Un número de diseños fueron probado y se determinó que mayor altura emergente (orientación de la bolsa), una espiga de fertilizante de árbol para agregar nutrientes y plantar el pop-up con un solo pimpollo alcanzó la mejor configuración para la implementación sobre un Everglade degradado Isla de árbol4. Aunque otros investigadores describen la plantación de árboles para restaurar humedales forestales áreas5,6, a nuestro conocimiento, ninguna de las técnicas de siembra descritas añadido elevación para reducir el gradiente.
Este procedimiento simula la formación de Everglades árbol islas que surgen de la turba que rompe la roca y flota a la superficie flotantes. Las plantas pueden establecer a forma una isla flotante o "pop-up" el árbol que se mueve y se instala en la superficie de la turba y se convierte en lo que se denomina una "batería" árbol isla1,7.
Everglades isla árbol árboles tienen diferentes tolerancias a las inundaciones para el crecimiento y la supervivencia8,9,10. En un estudio controlado, Jones et al. demostró la importancia de la gradiente para la supervivencia de Everglades árbol isla especies9. Stoffella et al encontró que la elevación relativa (a la superficie del agua) tenía diversos y profundos efectos sobre la supervivencia de las especies nativas plantadas de árboles y el crecimiento, debido a la tolerancia específica de cada especie a inundaciones10. Especies de árboles pueden seleccionarse para las condiciones específicas presentes. El árbol de la siembra técnica descrita aquí puede proporcionar elevación adicional y por lo tanto, fuentes de semillas de árboles en regiones antiguamente boscosas que han perdido altura y están ahora sujetos a un entorno de inundación que es dañino a especies nativas de árboles.
Antes regiones boscosas que hidroperiodos extendido podrían beneficiarse de este método para reintroducir especies leñosas a estas áreas. Esta técnica proporciona una elevación, reduciendo el gradiente. Además, los árboles se construir suelo (biomasa de raíz y hoja) y proporcionar una fuente de semilla para la continua colonización de la zona.

<table><tbody><tr><td>One or Two Gallon Native Tree Saplings in plastic pots.</td><td>Local Native Plant Nurseries</td><td>N/A</td><td>Obtain native tree saplings grown from locally obtained seed</td></tr><tr><td>Commercial Peat Bags. 5 cubic ft.</td><td>Lambert</td><td>Lambert Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss (6649801115)</td><td>Product description: Lambert peat moss is an excellent soil amendment because of its capacity to retain water, aerate the soil and it is completely natural. All of Lambert&#039;s peat moss packages carry the OMRI (Organic Material Review Institute) logo, which indicates that they are approved for use in organic production. Size: 5.5 cu.ft.</td></tr><tr><td>Vigoro Tree Spikes (Tree and Shrub Fertilizer Spikes, 15-Count)</td><td>Vigoro, Swiss Farms Products Inc.</td><td>Model # 154205</td><td>GUARANTEED ANALYSIS (%) TOTAL IN PRODUCT (ppm): Total Nitrogen (N) 12.0000; Available Phosphoric Acid (P2O5) 5.0000; Soluble Potash (K2O) 7.0000</td></tr><tr><td>PVC Pipe: 1/2 in schedule 40</td><td>JM Eagle</td><td>Model # 67447</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Duct Tape, 1-7/8 in x 12 yds</td><td>MSC Industrial Supply</td><td>Gorilla Heavy-Duty Duct Tape, Model # 60012</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Metal Rod (Rebar 1.3 cm diameter, 1.2 m long)</td><td>Weyerhaeuser</td><td>Model # 35616</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Box Cutter</td><td>Stanley</td><td>Model # STHT10273</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Work Gloves</td><td>Firm Grip</td><td>Model # 3101-96</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr><tr><td>Trash Bags (42 gallon)</td><td>HUSKY</td><td>Model # HK42WC050B</td><td>Any manufacturer or supplier will do.</td></tr></tbody></table>

a simple planting technique for re-establishing trees where frequent inundation occurs

Muchas de las islas de árboles de Everglades han perdido elevación durante el siglo pasado y ha muerto la mayoría de sus árboles que ahora están cubiertas con plantas herbáceas. Este protocolo describe una técnica para restaurar degradados Everglade árbol islas de plantación de árboles simple y rentable. El diseño está inspirado en un natural proceso de Everglades que crea islas flotantes de la turba, que permite el crecimiento y la supervivencia del árbol en condiciones de inundación y a menudo conduce al desarrollo de las islas de árboles. Bolsas de turba comercialmente disponibles fueron utilizados como el medio para el crecimiento y establecimiento de las plántulas de árboles nativos en maceta. La configuración emergente había flotada inicialmente y proporciona la elevación adicional para minimizar la inundación, con un retoño de la especie de árbol nativo y un alza de fertilizante del árbol. Durante un estudio de 3 años con 105 pop-ups, la mayoría plantas sobrevivieron (80%) y muchos prosperaron. Determinar si esta técnica puede establecer árboles en una isla de árboles degradados requerirá más estudios y pruebas de campo extenso.

Estudio utilizando la técnica4 se llevó a cabo dentro de un 0.32 km2 Everglades modelo físico11, en un canto para simular pruebas en una isla del árbol fantasma. Durante este estudio, dos bolsa de orientaciones para la altura (baja: 0,3 m, alto: 0,46 m), con una versus dos plantones por bolsa de crecimiento, fueron probados así como el uso de árbol fertilizantes spikes para promover el crecimiento y la supervivencia. Se util...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs at JoVE.com

A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

Este protocolo describe una técnica para restaurar degradadas islas árbol de Everglades que experimentan inundaciones de plantación de árboles simple y rentable. El diseño crea una isla (emergente) que inicialmente flota y agrega elevación para promover crecimiento bajo condiciones de inundación y la supervivencia del árbol.

Una sencilla técnica de plantación para restablecer los árboles donde se produce la inundación frecuente

Many of the Everglades tree islands have lost elevation over the past century and most of their trees have died such that they are now covered with ...

a-simple-planting-technique-for-re-establishing-trees-where-frequent

Universidad San Sebastian

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

6.1K vistas.  South Florida Water Management District. Este protocolo describe una técnica para restaurar degradadas islas árbol de Everglades que experimentan inundaciones de plantación de árboles simple y rentable. El diseño crea una isla (emergente) que inicialmente flota y agrega elevación para promover crecimiento bajo condiciones de inundación y la supervivencia del árbol.

Video: A Simple Planting Technique for Re-establishing Trees Where Frequent Inundation Occurs

A Venturi Effect Can Help Cure Our Trees

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. According to these factors and their dynamics, small amounts of sap-compatible liquids (i.e. pesticides) can be injected into the xylem system, reaching their target from inside. This endotherapic method, called &#34;trunk injection&#34; or &#34;trunk infusion&#34; (depending on whether the user supplies an external pressure or not), confines the applied chemicals only within the target tree, thereby making it particularly useful in urban situations. The main factors limiting wider use of the traditional drilling methods are related to negative side effects of the holes that must be drilled around the trunk circumference in order to gain access to the xylem vessels beneath the bark.
The University of Padova (Italy) recently developed a manual, drill-free instrument with a small, perforated blade that enters the trunk by separating the woody fibers with minimal friction. Furthermore, the lenticular shaped blade reduces the vessels&#39; cross section, increasing sap velocity and allowing the natural uptake of an external liquid up to the leaves, when transpiration rate is substantial. Ports partially close soon after the removal of the blade due to the natural elasticity and turgidity of the plant tissues, and the cambial activity completes the healing process in few weeks.

Compared to the more traditional hole-based methods, most of which require the tree to be drilled, tools with lenticular blades transform the basics of endotherapy easing the closure of the wound and allowing the natural uptake of the solutions.

Un Efecto Venturi puede ayudar a curar nuestros árboles

In woody plants, xylem sap moves upwards through the vessels due to a decreasing gradient of water potential from the groundwater to the foliage. ...

Investigación

Medio ambiente

Design and Construction of an Urban Runoff Research Facility

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use due to increased demand for landscape irrigation. Improper irrigation practices and large rainfall events can result in runoff from urban landscapes which has potential to carry nutrients and sediments into local streams and lakes where they may contribute to eutrophication. A 1,000 m2 facility was constructed which consists of 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots, each equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated urban landscapes. Runoff volumes from the first and second trials had coefficient of variability (CV) values of 38.2 and 28.7%, respectively. CV values for runoff pH, EC, and Na concentration for both trials were all under 10%. Concentrations of DOC, TDN, DON, PO4-P, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ had CV values less than 50% in both trials. Overall, the results of testing performed after sod installation at the facility indicated good uniformity between plots for runoff volumes and chemical constituents. The large plot size is sufficient to include much of the natural variability and therefore provides better simulation of urban landscape ecosystems.

This paper describes the design, construction, and function of a 1,000 m2 facility containing 24 individual 33.6 m2 field plots equipped for measuring total runoff volumes with time and collection of runoff subsamples at selected intervals for quantification of chemical constituents in the runoff water from simulated home lawns.

Diseño y Construcción de un Centro de Investigación La escorrentía urbana

As the urban population increases, so does the area of irrigated urban landscape. Summer water use in urban areas can be 2-3x winter base line water use ...

Vegetated Treatment Systems for Removing Contaminants Associated with Surface Water Toxicity in Agriculture and Urban Runoff

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may be treated with simple systems designed to promote sorption of contaminants to vegetation and soils and promote infiltration. Two example systems are described: a bioswale treatment system for urban stormwater treatment, and a vegetated drainage ditch for treating agriculture irrigation runoff. Both have similar attributes that reduce contaminant loading in runoff: vegetation that results in sorption of the contaminants to the soil and plant surfaces, and water infiltration. These systems may also include the integration of granulated activated carbon as a polishing step to remove residual contaminants. Implementation of these systems in agriculture and urban watersheds requires system monitoring to verify treatment efficacy. This includes chemical monitoring for specific contaminants responsible for toxicity. The current paper emphasizes monitoring of current use pesticides since these are responsible for surface water toxicity to aquatic invertebrates.

This article summarizes the design attributes and the effectiveness of treatment systems that treat urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff to remove pesticides and other contaminants associated with aquatic toxicity.

Sistemas de tratamiento con vegetación para eliminar los contaminantes asociados con la toxicidad del agua superficial en la agricultura y el escurrimiento urbano

Urban stormwater and agriculture irrigation runoff contain a complex mixture of contaminants that are often toxic to adjacent receiving waters. Runoff may ...

A Method for Quantifying Foliage-Dwelling Arthropods

Terrestrial arthropods play an important role in our environment. Quantifying arthropods in a way that allows for a precise index or estimates of density requires a method with high detection probability and a known sampling area. While most described methods provide a qualitative or semi-quantitative estimate adequate for describing species presence, richness, and diversity, few provide an adequately consistent detection probability and known or consistent sampling areas to provide an index or estimate with adequate precision to detect differences in abundance across environmental, spatial, or temporal variables. We describe how to quantify leaf-dwelling arthropods by sealing the leaves and end of branches in a bag, clipping and freezing the bagged material, and rinsing the previously frozen material in water to separate arthropods from the substrate and quantify them. As we demonstrate, this method can be used at a landscape scale to quantify leaf-dwelling arthropods with adequate precision to test for and describe how spatial, temporal, environmental, and ecological variables influence arthropod richness and abundance. This method allowed us to detect differences in density, richness, and diversity of leaf-dwelling arthropods among 5 genera of trees commonly found in southeastern deciduous forests.

We describe how to quantify leaf dwelling arthropods by sealing the leaves and end of branches in a bag, clipping and freezing the bagged material, and rinsing the previously frozen material in water to separate arthropods from the substrate for quantification.

Un método para cuantificar artrópodos que habitan en el follaje

Terrestrial arthropods play an important role in our environment. Quantifying arthropods in a way that allows for a precise index or estimates of density ...

Using Tree-Rings to Reconstruct Fire History Information from Forested Areas

Annual tree-ring patterns are a source of ecological and environmental information including the history of fires in forested areas. Tree-ring based fire histories include three fundamental phases: field collection, laboratory methods (preparation and dating), and data analysis. Here we provide step-by-step instructions and issues to consider, including the process for selecting the study area, sampling sites, plus how and which fire-scarred trees to sample. In addition, we describe fire-scar sample preparation and dating which are done in the laboratory. Finally, we describe basic analysis and relevant results, including examples from studies that have reconstructed fire history patterns. These studies allow us to understand the historical fire frequency, changes in those frequencies related to anthropogenic factors, and analyzes of how climate influences fire occurrence over time. The description of these methods and techniques should provide a greater understanding of fire history studies that will benefit researchers, educators, technicians, and students interested in this field. These detailed methods will allow new researchers to this field, a resource to start their own work and achieve greater success. This resource will provide a greater integration of tree-ring aspects within other studies and lead to a better understanding of natural processes with forested ecosystems.

This work explains the most appropriate techniques and methods for conducting a fire history study from beginning site selection to final analysis of fire-climate relationship.

Annual tree-ring patterns are a source of ecological and environmental information including the history of fires in forested areas. Tree-ring based fire ...

A Method to Preserve Wetland Roots and Rhizospheres for Elemental Imaging

Roots extensively interact with their soil environment but visualizing such interactions between roots and the surrounding rhizosphere is challenging. The rhizosphere chemistry of wetland plants is particularly challenging to capture because of steep oxygen gradients from the roots to the bulk soil. Here a protocol is described that effectively preserves root structure and rhizosphere chemistry of wetland plants through slam-freezing and freeze drying. Slam-freezing, where the sample is frozen between copper blocks pre-cooled with liquid nitrogen, minimizes root damage and sample distortion that can occur with flash-freezing while still minimizing chemical speciation changes. While sample distortion is still possible, the ability to obtain multiple samples quickly and with minimal cost increases the potential to obtain satisfactory samples and optimizes imaging time. The data show that this method is successful in preserving reduced arsenic species in rice roots and rhizospheres associated with iron plaques. This method can be adopted for studies of plant-soil relationships in a wide variety of wetland environments that span concentration ranges from trace-element cycling to phytoremediation applications.

We describe a protocol to sample, preserve, and section intact roots and the surrounding rhizosphere soil from wetland environments using rice (Oryza sativa L.) as a model species. Once preserved, the sample can be analyzed using elemental imaging techniques, such as synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (XRF) chemical speciation imaging.

Un método para preservar las raíces y rizosferas de los humedales para imágenes elementales

Roots extensively interact with their soil environment but visualizing such interactions between roots and the surrounding rhizosphere is challenging. The ...

Inoculation Strategies to Infect Plant Roots with Soil-Borne Microorganisms

The rhizosphere harbors a highly complex microbial community in which plant roots are constantly challenged. Roots are in close contact with a wide variety of microorganisms, but studies on soil-borne interactions are still behind those performed on aboveground organs. Although some inoculation strategies for infecting model plants with model root pathogens are described in the literature, it remains difficult to get a comprehensive methodological overview. To address this problem, three different root inoculation systems are precisely described that can be applied to gain insights into the biology of root-microbe interactions. For illustration, Verticillium species (namely, V. longisporum and V. dahliae) were employed as root invading model pathogens. However, the methods can be easily adapted to other root colonizing microbes - both pathogenic and beneficial. By colonizing the plant xylem, vascular soil-borne fungi such as Verticillium spp. exhibit a unique lifestyle. After root invasion, they spread via the xylem vessels acropetally, reach the shoot, and elicit disease symptoms. Three representative plant species were chosen as model hosts: Arabidopsis thaliana, economically important oilseed rape (Brassica napus), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Step-by-step protocols are given. Representative results of pathogenicity assays, transcriptional analyses of marker genes, and independent confirmations by reporter constructs are shown. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of each inoculation system are thoroughly discussed. These proven protocols can assist in providing approaches for research questions on root-microbe interactions. Knowing how plants cope with microbes in the soil is crucial for developing new strategies to improve agriculture.

This protocol presents a detailed summary of strategies to inoculate plant roots with soil-borne microbes. Exemplified for the fungi Verticillium longisporum and Verticillium dahliae, three different root infection systems are described. Potential applications and possible downstream analyses are highlighted, and advantages or disadvantages are discussed for each system.

Estrategias de inoculación para infectar las raíces de las plantas con microorganismos transmitidos por el suelo

The rhizosphere harbors a highly complex microbial community in which plant roots are constantly challenged. Roots are in close contact with a wide ...

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture data has been slow due to inconsistent data collection, poor standardization, and typically short record duration. Soil moisture, or quantitatively volumetric soil water content (SWC), is measured using buried, in situ sensors that infer SWC from an electromagnetic response. This signal can vary considerably with local site conditions such as clay content and mineralogy, soil salinity or bulk electrical conductivity, and soil temperature; each of these can have varying impacts depending on the sensor technology.
Furthermore, poor soil contact and sensor degradation can affect the quality of these readings over time. Unlike more traditional environmental sensors, there are no accepted standards, maintenance practices, or quality controls for SWC data. As such, SWC is a challenging measurement for many environmental monitoring networks to implement. Here, we attempt to establish a community-based standard of practice for in situ SWC sensors so that future research and applications have consistent guidance on site selection, sensor installation, data interpretation, and long-term maintenance of monitoring stations.
The videography focuses on a multi-agency consensus of best-practices and recommendations for the installation of in situ SWC sensors. This paper presents an overview of this protocol along with the various steps essential for high-quality and long-term SWC data collection. This protocol will be of use to scientists and engineers hoping to deploy a single station or an entire network.

In Situ Soil Moisture Sensors in Undisturbed Soils

The determination of soil water content is a critical mission requirement for many state and federal agencies. This protocol synthesizes multi-agency efforts to measure soil water content using buried in situ sensors.

In situ Sensores de humedad del suelo en suelos no perturbados

Soil moisture directly affects operational hydrology, food security, ecosystem services, and the climate system. However, the adoption of soil moisture ...

Field Collection and Laboratory Maintenance of Canopy-Forming Giant Kelp to Facilitate Restoration

Canopy-forming kelps are essential foundation species, supporting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services valued at more than USD$500 billion annually. The global decline of giant kelp forests due to climate-driven ecological stressors underscores the need for innovative restoration strategies. An emerging restoration technique known as &#39;green gravel&#39; aims to seed young kelps over large areas without extensive underwater labor and represents a promising restoration tool due to cost-effectiveness and scalability. This video article illustrates a protocol and tools for culturing giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera. It also provides a resource for further studies to address the successes and limitations of this method in field settings. We outline field and laboratory-based methods for collecting reproductive tissue, sporulating, inoculating, rearing, maintaining, and monitoring substrates seeded with early life stages using the &#39;green gravel&#39;&#160;technique. The protocol simplifies and centralizes current restoration practices in this field to support researchers, managers, and stakeholders in meeting kelp conservation objectives.

This protocol describes the field collection and regular laboratory maintenance of substrates seeded with canopy-forming giant kelp for use in restoration trials to address the success and limitations of the 'green gravel' technique in field settings.

Recolección de campo y mantenimiento de laboratorio de algas gigantes formadoras de dosel para facilitar la restauración

Canopy-forming kelps are essential foundation species, supporting biodiversity and providing ecosystem services valued at more than USD$500 billion ...

Responses to Drought and Flooding

Water plays a significant role in the life cycle of plants. However, insufficient or excess of water can be detrimental and pose a serious threat to plants.

Under normal conditions, water taken up by the plant evaporates from leaves and other parts in a process called transpiration. In times of drought stress, water that evaporates by transpiration far exceeds the water absorbed from the soil, causing plants to wilt. The general plant response to drought stress is the synthesis of hormone abscisic acid that keeps stomata closed and reduces transpiration. Additionally, plants may respond to extreme water insufficiency by shedding leaves. This method, however, reduces photosynthesis and consequently hampers plant growth.

Mitigation of drought stress in plants by microbes

Drought stress limits the growth and productivity of plants in arid and semi-arid regions. However, certain microbes present in the vicinity of plants may release physical and chemical signals that induce changes related to plant defense under drought conditions. For example, the soil bacterium Paenibacillus polymyx is reported to induce drought tolerance in Arabidopsis. The most significant effect of this bacteria was observed in the growth of legumes under water stress. Leguminous plants depend on soil rhizobium for nitrogen fixation - but rhizobia are extremely sensitive to drought stress, resulting in very low nitrogen fixation. However, soil mixed with P. polymyx resulted in increased nitrogen fixation by rhizobium and increased growth of the bean plant.

Excess water is equally as disastrous to plants as a lack of water. Too much water can suffocate plants by reducing air spaces in the soil, thereby restricting oxygen needed for cellular respiration. Certain woody plant species respond to flood conditions by developing hypertrophic growth that appears as swelling of tissues at the stem base. This hypertrophic growth may aid in the downward diffusion of oxygen as well as potential venting of toxic compounds (carbon dioxide, methane, and ethanol) formed from anaerobic metabolism. Other adaptive responses to flood stress include the formation of adventitious roots, increases in root porosity via specialized cells called aerenchyma cells, and a suberized exodermis to prevent loss of oxygen.

Plant Responses to Drought and Floods

Respuestas a sequías e inundaciones

Water plays a significant role in the life cycle of plants. However, insufficient or excess of water can be detrimental and pose a serious threat to ...