The authors have no acknowledgements.&#160;

All procedures were approved by the ethics committee of the medical association of the State Rhineland-Palatinate and performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
1. Atomizer4
<ol>
	<li>Remove the set from package. Inspect the product to ensure there is no damage. 
	NOTE: The device is intended for one-time use. Please refer to the instructions for use for further information about storage and supply (see Materials and Equipment Table).</li>
</ol>
2. General Preparation of the Patient
<ol>
	<li>Administer premedication, e.g. Lorazepam 1 - 2.5 mg the evening before and/or 2 - 4 mg 1 - 2 h before the intervention (with attention to contraindications).</li>
	<li>Establish monitoring parameters such as pulse oximetry (SpO2), electrocardiography (ECG) and non-invasive blood pressure (NIBP). 
	NOTE: Monitor patient sedation using standards such as Ramsay Sedation Scale and Bispectral Index monitoring. Close monitoring of the level of sedation can help prevent potential complications such as respiratory depression.</li>
	<li>Secure a peripheral intravenous access.</li>
</ol>
3. Topical Anesthesia of the Upper Airway
<ol>
	<li>Apply 1 mL mixture of lidocaine 2% with phenylephrine 0.25% to each nostril.</li>
	<li>Apply lidocaine 10% spray twice directly onto the mucosa of the oropharynx, spraying from the tip to the back of the tongue. Ask the patient to gargle the lidocaine in the mouth for as long as possible. 
	NOTE: Anesthesia of the supraglottic airway can be performed alternatively using cotton-tipped swabs or nasopharyngeal airways, drops, gel, swish and gargling, aspirating and spraying local anesthetics.</li>
</ol>
4. Analgo-sedation
<ol>
	<li>Start analgo-sedation using i.v. medication, e.g. initial sufentanil bolus (&#60; 60 kg: 5 &#181;g; &#62; 60 kg: 10 &#181;g; &#62; 100 kg: 15 &#181;g). 
	NOTE: Dose drug-induced sedation at the lowest level possible in order to prevent apnea or airway constriction.</li>
	<li>Give an extra sufentanil i.v. bolus, e.g. 5 &#181;g, as &#39;rescue&#39; treatment until a Ramsay Sedation Score of 2 (cooperative, oriented, tranquil) is achieved.</li>
</ol>
5. Equipment Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Assemble and check the flexible intubation endoscope according to institutional standards.</li>
	<li>Connect the oxygen tube of the atomizer to the oxygen flow meter directly. 
	Caution! Oxygen flow meters with humidifier bottles must not be used.</li>
	<li>Attach the connecting tube to the Luer on the working channel of the endoscope. Set the oxygen flow rate to 10 L/min, as recommended in the instruction manual.</li>
	<li>Connect a 1 mL syringe containing the lidocaine 2% solution to the three-way sidearm fitting. 
	NOTE: Lidocaine 2% with its favorable efficacy profile is a suitable anesthetic.</li>
</ol>
6. Atomizer Technique
<ol>
	<li>Close the flow-control opening using a finger. Rapidly inject the medication. Immediately release the flow-control opening. 
	NOTE: A syringe must be connected to the three-way sidearm fitting to obtain a continuous low oxygen flow through the working channel.</li>
	<li>While advancing the flexible endoscope in the airway, inject the local anesthetic using the atomizer at the following sites: inside nostril, on posterior nares; epiglottis; glottis; and vocal cords.</li>
	<li>Repeat these steps as often as required while advancing the endoscope (&#34;spray-as-you-go&#34;). Before passing through the vocal cords, wait for 2 min to allow sufficient drug effect at the site. 
	NOTE: Monitor sedation level of patient and top up sedation using i.v. medication (e.g. sufentanil 5 &#181;g), as needed.</li>
</ol>
7. Flexible Endoscopic Intubation
<ol>
	<li>Advance the endoscope carefully through the glottis into the trachea and position the tip of the endoscope just above the carina. Railroad a suitable sized, cuffed and lubricated flexible endotracheal tube over the endoscope into the trachea under rotation. 
	NOTE: Avoid accidental advancement of the endoscope tip into a main stem bronchus.</li>
	<li>Confirm placement of the endotracheal tube in the trachea just above the carina by visual control via the endoscope. Remove the endoscope, leaving the endotracheal tube in place.</li>
	<li>Confirm the endotracheal position of the tube by measuring end tidal CO2 using capnography in the spontaneously breathing patient.</li>
	<li>Induce general anesthesia, e.g. intravenous Propofol 2 mg/kg/body weight. Start ventilating the patients according to current standards.</li>
</ol>
NOTE: The Enk Atomizer set is currently not available from Cook Medical.

<ol>
	<li>Simmons, S. T., Schleich, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Airway+regional+anaesthesia+for+awake+fibreoptic+intubation.">Airway regional anaesthesia for awake fibreoptic intubation.</a> Reg Anesth Pain Med. 27, 180-192 (2002).</li><li>Benumof, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Management+of+the+difficult+adult+airway.+With+special+emphasis+on+awake+tracheal+intubation.">Management of the difficult adult airway. With special emphasis on awake tracheal intubation.</a> Anesthesiology. 75, 1087-1110 (1991).</li><li>Piepho, T., Thierbach, A. R., G&#246;bler, S. M., Maybaur, M. O., Werner, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+two+different+techniques+of+fiberoptic+intubation.">Comparison of two different techniques of fiberoptic intubation.</a> Eur J Anaesthesiol. 26, 328-332 (2009).</li><li>Pirlich, N., Lohse, J. A., Schmidtmann, I., Didion, N., Piepho, T., Noppens, R. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparison+of+the+atomizer+with+boluses+of+topical+anaesthesia+for+awake+fibreoptic+intubation.">A comparison of the atomizer with boluses of topical anaesthesia for awake fibreoptic intubation.</a> Anaesthesia. 71, 814-822 (2016).</li><li>Malcharek, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+the+Enk+Fibreoptic+Atomizer+with+translaryngeal+injection+for+topical+anaesthesia+for+awake+fibreoptic+intubation+in+patients+at+risk+of+secondary+cervical+injury:+a+randomised+controlled+trial.">Comparison of the Enk Fibreoptic Atomizer with translaryngeal injection for topical anaesthesia for awake fibreoptic intubation in patients at risk of secondary cervical injury: a randomised controlled trial.</a> Eur J Anaesthesiol. 32, 615-623 (2015).</li><li>Williams, K. A., Barker, G. L., Harwood, R. J., Woodall, N. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combined+nebulization+and+spray-as-you-go+topical+anaesthesia+of+the+airway.">Combined nebulization and spray-as-you-go topical anaesthesia of the airway.</a> Br J Anaesth. 95, 549-553 (2005).</li><li>O'Hare, D. O., Harwood, R., Woodall, N., Barker, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+of+administering+topical+anaesthesia+for+flexible+airway+endoscopy.">A method of administering topical anaesthesia for flexible airway endoscopy.</a> Anaesthesia. 55, 616 (2000).</li><li>Long, T. R., Wass, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+alternative+to+transtracheal+injection+for+fiberoptic+intubation+in+awake+patients:+A+novel+noninvasive+technique+using+a+standard+multiorifice+epidural+catheter+through+the+bronchoscope+suction+port.">An alternative to transtracheal injection for fiberoptic intubation in awake patients: A novel noninvasive technique using a standard multiorifice epidural catheter through the bronchoscope suction port.</a> Anaesthesiology. 101, 1253 (2004).</li><li>Xue, F. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spray-as-you-go+airway+topical+anesthesia+in+patients+with+a+difficult+airway:+a+randomized,+double-blind+comparison+of+2%+and+4%+lidocaine.">Spray-as-you-go airway topical anesthesia in patients with a difficult airway: a randomized, double-blind comparison of 2% and 4% lidocaine.</a> Anesth Analg. 108, 536-543 (2009).</li><li>Hershey, M. D., Hannenberg, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gastric+distension+and+rupture+from+oxygen+insufflation+during+fiberoptic+intubation.">Gastric distension and rupture from oxygen insufflation during fiberoptic intubation.</a> Anesthesiology. 85, 1479-1480 (1996).</li><li>Ho, C. M., Yin, I. W., Tsou, K. F., Chow, L. H., Tsai, S. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gastric+rupture+after+awake+fiberoptic+intubation+in+a+patient+with+laryngeal+carcinoma.">Gastric rupture after awake fiberoptic intubation in a patient with laryngeal carcinoma.</a> Br J Anaesth. 94, 856-858 (2005).</li><li>Chapman, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gastric+rupture+and+pneumoperitoneum+caused+by+oxygen+insufflation+via+a+fibreoptic+bronchoscope.">Gastric rupture and pneumoperitoneum caused by oxygen insufflation via a fibreoptic bronchoscope.</a> Anesth Analg. 106, 1592 (2008).</li><li>Ovassapian, A., Mesnick, P. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxygen+insufflation+through+the+fiberscope+to+assist+intubation+is+not+recommended.">Oxygen insufflation through the fiberscope to assist intubation is not recommended.</a> Anesthesiology. 87, 183 (1997).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.&#160;The Enk-Atomizer set is currently not available from Cook Medical. According to the inventor (personal communication) a comparable device will be available in the future.

Here we demonstrate topical anesthesia using an atomizer with high oxygen flow for awake-endoscopic intubation. The first study to evaluate the atomizer technique compared it with classical boluses of topical anesthesia via the working channel of the flexible intubating endoscope5. Patients in the atomizer group evaluated their level of comfort as better than those in the control group and experienced fewer coughs and distinct coughing episodes. In addition, the atomizer technique was faster and less local anesthetic was required.

When investigators compared the atomizer, using low oxygen flow, with translaryngeal injection for awake-intubation in patients at risk of cervical spine injury, there were no differences between the groups in terms of comfort evaluation6. The spray-as-you-go technique with high oxygen flow is one variation of several different described spray-as-you-go techniques.
A major advantage of all spray-as-you-go techniques is their flexibility, involving selectively and repetitively anesthetizing the airway, which makes these techniques a suitable choice for most endoscopic intubations.
The classical bolus application of local anesthetic regularly evokes patient discomfort. Several efforts have been made to reduce this limitation. For example, the use of an epidural catheter cut to the length of the flexible intubating endoscope and inserted through the working channel is repeatedly recommended in the literature7,8,9. The outcome of this modification has not yet been confirmed due to the lack of prospective, controlled and randomized studies. However, a limitation of the epidural catheter technique is that an experienced operator is needed to successfully maneuver the local anesthetic application. Additionally, using an epidural catheter for local anesthetic application was reported to be costly and time consuming8,10.
An additional advantage of the spray-as-you-go technique is its ease of handling. Nebulization of local anesthetic requires additional equipment (e.g. ultrasonic nebulizer) and additional time prior to endoscopic intubation. Furthermore, the spray-as-you-go technique can be used for almost every patient, while a cooperative patient and knowledge of anatomy and the identification of landmarks are fundamental requirements when performing an airway nerve block.
Intra-arterial injection, hematoma formation and tracheal injury such as subcutaneous emphysema are feared complications due to the invasiveness of performing blocks, but complications caused by the spray-as-you-go technique are rare.
Potential complications of using a constant oxygen flow (3 to 5 L/min) through the working channel of an intubation endoscope include gastric insufflation and organ rupture11,12,13. Complications may occur during difficult visualization of airway structures, a prolonged procedure or accidental esophageal intubation. Barotrauma of the lung is theoretically possible if the intubation endoscope is passed through a narrowed glottis and passage of the tracheal tube is delayed because of a narrowed airway. For these reasons, some authors do not recommend applying oxygen through the working channel of an intubation endoscope14. None of the above-mentioned complications was observed in the two studies investigating the atomizer5,6. This could be attributed to the flow-control opening of the atomizer, a 2 mm hole placed opposite the injection port of the three-way-sidearm fitting, which allows flow and pressure release if no injection is performed. It is assumed that there is no continuous high oxygen flow and pressure at the distal end of the working channel of the endoscope, because oxygen can escape through the flow-control opening. Only at the time of injection, when it is closed, might the subsequent airway structures be under a higher pressure.
There are no data on the pressure at the distal tip of the endoscope working channel when administering oxygen or the distribution and penetration depth of local anesthetic on, and in, the airway mucosa. This, as well as the mechanism as to how high flow oxygen atomizes local anesthetic, would be worth investigating.

Topical anesthesia of the airway for awake intubation is generally recommended to improve patient comfort, which will help make the procedure a success. The spray-as-you-go technique with high oxygen flow is a simple and safe concept that is finding a high level of acceptance among patients. The atomization of the local anesthetic by oxygen at a flow rate of 10 L/min results in less stimulation of the cough and gag reflex.
Faced with negative feedback from several patients, we decided to refine the standard institutional spray-as-you-go technique. This classical bolus application of local anesthetic consisted of two injections, each of 5 mL lidocaine 2% plus 5 mL air in a 10 mL syringe, first into the vocal cords and then, after a 2-min waiting time, into the trachea. Patients complained about the feeling of being drowned by the splash of the bolus striking their airway mucosa.
The spray-as-you-go technique is commonly used worldwide1. This technique involves local anesthetic application through the working channel of a flexible intubating endoscope while advancing the tip through the upper and lower airway with the goal of intubating the patient&#180;s trachea. There are multiple approaches in practice and several descriptions of methods in the literature. Initial experiences with the spray-as-you-go-technique in combination with application of a constant oxygen flow through the working channel were published in the 1990s2. The focus here was on oxygen flow effects like cleaning the lens by dispersing mucus secretions and blood away from the lens and elevating the inspiratory oxygen delivery. The advantage of the oxygen flow in aiding atomization of local anesthetic was shown previously by Piepho and colleagues3. They described a vaporization technique, where the supply of 3 L/min oxygen resulted in less coughing by the patients. On the assumption that a flow of 10 L/min would atomize the local agent into finer particles that would evoke even less coughing, we successfully tested the atomizer at this higher flower rate. The atomizer consists of a small volume, kink-resistant, flexible, pressure-certified oxygen tube and a connecting tube. These are connected to a three-way sidearm fitting with a small flow-control opening.
The atomizer technique can be used for all airway situations. However, the device should be used cautiously distal from higher-grade airway stenosis caused by conditions such as tumor masses. The lack of backflow of oxygen could cause increased airway pressure and increases the risk of barotrauma. Also, the atomizer is a useful tool in an emergency setting. The preparation of the set needs less than a minute and the user needs no special training. In the following we present detailed operating instructions for the spray-as-you-go technique with high oxygen flow, illustrating the separate working steps.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Lidocaine 10% pump spray&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; AstraZeneca</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Opiod for i.v. administration</td><td></td><td></td><td>Any opiod can be used. We prefer either Sufentanil or Fentanyl</td></tr><tr><td>Enk Fiberoptic Atomizer Set&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Cook Medical</td><td>C-EFNS-100</td><td>The Enk Atomizer set is currently not available from Cook Medical</td></tr><tr><td>Lidocaine 2%&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; AstraZeneca</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Intubation endoscope</td><td>&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; Karl Storz Endoscope</td><td></td><td>We prefer a fibrescope with an outer diamter of 5 mm and a working channel with a diamter of 2 mm&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Endotracheal tube</td><td>&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; R&amp;uuml;sch</td><td></td><td>Size of the endotracheal tube needs to be adjusted to the patient. We prefer a ID 6.5 mm for nasal approach and ID 7.0 mm for oral approach</td></tr><tr><td>Anesthetic drug, &lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; Propofol 1%</td><td>&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt; AstraZeneca</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

topical airway anesthesia for awake-endoscopic intubation using the spray-as-you-go technique with high oxygen flow

A patient&#39;s willingness to cooperate is an absolute precondition for successful awake intubation of the trachea. Whilst drug-sedation of patients can jeopardize their spontaneous breathing, topical anesthesia of the airway is a popular technique. The spray-as-you-go technique represents one of the simplest opportunities to anesthetize the airway mucosa. The application of local anesthetic through the working channel of the flexible endoscope is a widespread practice for anesthetists as well as pulmonologists. There is neither need for additional devices nor special training as a pre-requisite to perform this technique. However, a known clinical problem is the coughing and gagging reflex that may occur when the liquid anesthetic strikes the airway mucosa and other sensitive structures like the vocal cords. This can be avoided by the use of oxygen applied through the working channel with the aim of fogging the local anesthetic into finer particles. Furthermore, the oxygen flow provides a higher oxygen supply and contributes to a better view, dispersing mucus secretions and blood away from the lens. Using an atomizer with a high oxygen flow of 10 L/min we maximized these benefits, caused less coughing and had more satisfied and therefore cooperative patients. Possible, but very rare complications of using oxygen flow including gastric insufflation, organ rupture or barotrauma did not arise. We attribute the complication-free use of high oxygen flow to the design of the set, which permits flow and pressure release.

We performed awake flexible endoscopic intubation using the presented topical anesthesia technique in 48 patients. We succeeded in intubating all patients except one, who suffered from a stenosing tumor of the pharynx, which made it impossible to advance the tube.
The quality of awake intubation comfort was evaluated by patients, anesthetists and nurses using an 11-point visual analog scale (VAS) from 0 = not unpleasant to 10 = intolerable. The atomizer technique met with broad acceptance, and the evaluation of comfort showed good performance. On the first postoperative day, patients rated their level of comfort with a median (Interquartile range (IQR)) VAS score of 1 (1 - 3). Anaesthetists and nurses rated the technique as VAS 2 (1 - 4 and 1 - 3 respectively).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/55116/55116fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Comfort level of patients undergoing awake endoscopic intubation on the first postoperative day, and comfort evaluation by anesthetists and nurses. VAS 0 = Not Unpleasant, VAS 10 = Intolerable. Symbol, Median; Error Bars, IQR. <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.bdigitaluss.remotexs.co/files/ftp_upload/55116/55116fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/55116/55116fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: The median number of coughs in a control group, using the classical bolus application of 2 x 5 mL 2% lidocaine was nearly twice as high.
The incidence of coughing is a surrogate measure of the quality of awake-intubation. A trained and skilled study nurse, who was not involved in patient treatment at any time, exclusively collected data during the procedure to avoid reporting bias. We evaluated coughing when topical anesthesia was applied (protocol includes five injections of lidocaine). The median number of coughs during the period of intubation was 6 (3 - 10).
Further criteria used to evaluate the safety of awake-intubation were the time required for intubation and the consumption of local anesthetic in relation to neurological toxicity. The mean duration of awake-intubation was 5 (3 - 6) min. This period included the time required to administer the topical anesthetic using the atomizer. The atomized sprays could be administered one after another (spray as you go). Under the assumption that the atomized lidocaine penetrates deeper into the airway mucosa and for this reason acts faster, the protocol included only a 2-min waiting time before passing through the vocal cords.
Use of the atomizer with a high oxygen flow led to a widespread distribution of local anesthetic. The average consumption of lidocaine 2% using the atomizer technique was 100 mg. The cardiovascular stability was probably a result of effective topical airway anesthesia in combination with an acceptable sedation protocol.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/55116/55116table1.jpg" />
Table 1: Stability of the cardiopulmonary indices from the initiation of topical anesthesia to immediately after insertion of the endotracheal tube. Data were documented at baseline and every min thereafter. Data show median and IQR.&#160; <a href="https://cloudflare-jove-com.bdigitaluss.remotexs.co/files/ftp_upload/55116/55116table1large.jpg">Please click here to download this file.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Topical Airway Anesthesia for Awake-endoscopic Intubation Using the Spray-as-you-go Technique with High Oxygen Flow at JoVE.com

Topical Airway Anesthesia for Awake-endoscopic Intubation Using the Spray-as-you-go Technique with High Oxygen Flow

The topical anesthetic lidocaine was atomized using a high oxygen flow through the working channel of a flexible intubating endoscope to achieve topical airway anesthesia for awake endotracheal intubation. We prefer this modified spray-as-you-go technique for endoscopic intubation to classical bolus application because of higher patient satisfaction and better compliance.

A patient&#39;s willingness to cooperate is an absolute precondition for successful awake intubation of the trachea. Whilst drug-sedation of patients can ...

topical-airway-anesthesia-for-awake-endoscopic-intubation-using-spray

Universidad San Sebastian

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

16.5K Views.  University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University. The topical anesthetic lidocaine was atomized using a high oxygen flow through the working channel of a flexible intubating endoscope to achieve topical airway anesthesia for awake endotracheal intubation. We prefer this modified spray-as-you-go technique for endoscopic intubation to classical bolus application because of higher patient satisfaction and better compliance.

Video: Topical Airway Anesthesia for Awake-endoscopic Intubation Using the Spray-as-you-go Technique with High Oxygen Flow

A Novel Rescue Technique for Difficult Intubation and Difficult Ventilation

We describe a novel non surgical technique to maintain oxygenation and ventilation in a case of difficult intubation and difficult ventilation, which works especially well with poor mask fit.
Can not intubate, can not ventilate" (CICV) is a potentially life threatening situation. In this video we present a simulation of the technique we used in a case of CICV where oxygenation and ventilation were maintained by inserting an endotracheal tube (ETT) nasally down to the level of the naso-pharynx while sealing the mouth and nares for successful positive pressure ventilation.
A 13 year old patient was taken to the operating room for incision and drainage of a neck abcess and direct laryngobronchoscopy. After preoxygenation, anesthesia was induced intravenously. Mask ventilation was found to be extremely difficult because of the swelling of the soft tissue. The face mask could not fit properly on the face due to significant facial swelling as well. A direct laryngoscopy was attempted with no visualization of the larynx. Oxygen saturation was difficult to maintain, with saturations falling to 80%. In order to oxygenate and ventilate the patient, an endotracheal tube was then inserted nasally after nasal spray with nasal decongestant and lubricant. The tube was pushed gently and blindly into the hypopharynx. The mouth and nose of the patient were sealed by hand and positive pressure ventilation was possible with 100% O2 with good oxygen saturation during that period of time. Once the patient was stable and well sedated, a rigid bronchoscope was introduced by the otolaryngologist showing extensive subglottic and epiglottic edema, and a mass effect from the abscess, contributing to the airway compromise. The airway was secured with an ETT tube by the otolaryngologist.This video will show a simulation of the technique on a patient undergoing general anesthesia for dental restorations.

We describe a technique to maintain oxygenation and ventilation using an endotracheal tube inserted nasally to the level of the naso-pharynx while sealing the mouth and nares for successful positive pressure ventilation.

We describe a novel non surgical technique to maintain oxygenation and ventilation in a case of difficult intubation and difficult ventilation, which ...

Guidelines for Elective Pediatric Fiberoptic Intubation

Fiberoptic intubation in pediatric patients is often required especially in difficult airways of syndromic patients i.e. Pierre Robin Syndrome. Small babies will desaturate very quickly if ventilation is interrupted mainly to high metabolic rate. We describe guidelines to perform a safe fiberoptic intubation while maintaining spontaneous breathing throughout the procedure. Steps requiring the use of propofol pump, fentanyl, glycopyrrolate, red rubber catheter, metal insuflation hook, afrin, lubricant and lidocaine spray are shown.

We describe guidelines to perform a safe and efficient elective fiberoptic intubation in pediatric patients while maintaining spontaneous ventilation.

Fiberoptic intubation in pediatric patients is often required especially in difficult airways of syndromic patients i.e. Pierre Robin Syndrome. Small ...

Endotracheal Intubation in Mice via Direct Laryngoscopy Using an Otoscope

Mice, both wildtype and transgenic, are the principal mammalian model in biomedical research currently. Intubation and mechanical ventilation are necessary for whole animal experiments that require surgery under deep anesthesia or measurements of lung function. Tracheostomy has been the standard for intubating the airway in these mice to allow mechanical ventilation. Orotracheal intubation has been reported but has not been successfully used in many studies because of the substantial technical difficulty or a requirement for highly specialized and expensive equipment. Here we report a technique of direct laryngoscopy using an otoscope fitted with a 2.0 mm speculum and using a 20 G&#160;intravenous catheter as an endotracheal tube. We have used this technique extensively and reliably to intubate and conduct accurate assessments of lung function in mice. This technique has proven safe, with essentially no animal loss in experienced hands. Moreover, this technique can be used for repeated studies of mice in chronic models.

Endotracheal Intubation in Mice via Direct Laryngoscopy Using an Otoscope

We have developed a simple, reliable, and relatively inexpensive method for endotracheal intubation in mice via direct laryngoscopy using an otoscope with a 2.0 mm speculum. This technique is atraumatic and can be used for repeated measurements in chronic experiments. We find it superior to tracheostomy or previously reported nonsurgical techniques.

Mice, both wildtype and transgenic, are the principal mammalian model in biomedical research currently. Intubation and mechanical ventilation are ...

An Improved Method for Rapid Intubation of the Trachea in Mice

Despite some anatomical and physiological differences, mouse models continue to be an essential tool for studying human lung disease. Bleomycin toxicity is a commonly used model to study both acute lung injury and fibrosis, and multiple methods have been developed for administering bleomycin (and other toxic agents) into the lungs. However, many of these approaches, such as transtracheal instillation, have inherent drawbacks, including the need for strong anesthetics and survival surgery. This paper reports a quick, reproducible method of intratracheal intubation that involves mild inhaled anesthesia, visualization of the trachea, and the use of a surrogate spirometer to confirm exposure. As a proof of concept, 8-12 week old C57BL/6 mice were administered either 2.0 U/kg of bleomycin or an equivalent volume of PBS, and both damage and fibrotic endpoints were measured post-exposure. This procedure allows researchers to treat a large cohort of mice in a relatively short period with little expense and minimal post-procedure care.

This article presents a rapid and simple method for administering bleomycin directly into the mouse trachea via intubation. Key advantages of this method are that it is highly reproducible, easy to master, and does not require specialized equipment or lengthy recovery times.

Despite some anatomical and physiological differences, mouse models continue to be an essential tool for studying human lung disease. Bleomycin toxicity ...

Drug-Induced Sleep Endoscopy (DISE) with Target Controlled Infusion (TCI) and Bispectral Analysis in Obstructive Sleep Apnea

The aim of this study was to establish a standardized protocol for drug-induced sleep endoscopy (DISE) to differentiate obstruction patterns in obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Target-controlled infusion (TCI) of the sedative propofol was combined with real-time monitoring of the depth of sedation using bispectral analysis.
In an observational study 57 patients (mean age 44.8 years, &#177; SD 10.5; mean apnea hypopnea Index (AHI) 30.8/hr, &#177; SD 21.6, mean BMI 28.2 kg/m2, &#177; SD 5.3) underwent cardiorespiratory polysomnography followed by DISE with TCI and bispectral analysis. Sleep was induced solely by the intravenous infusion of propofol with a TCI-pump, with an initial target plasma level of 2.0 &#181;g/ml. Under continuous monitoring of the patient&#39;s respiration, state of consciousness and value of the bispectral analysis, the target plasma propofol level was raised in steps of 0.2 &#181;g/ml/2 min until the desired depth of sedation was reached. The mean value of the bispectral analysis at the target depth of sedation was determined and the obstruction patterns during DISE-TCI-bispectral analysis then classified according to the VOTE-system. Subsequently the results were analyzed according to polysomnographic and anthropometric data. The occurrence of multilevel obstruction sites across all degrees of severity of OSA clarifies the need for sleep endoscopy prior to upper airway surgery.
The advantage of this technique is the reproducibility of the protocol even for heterogeneous groups of patients. In addition, the gradual controlled and standardized increase of the plasma level of propofol with real-time control of the bispectral index leads to a precisely controllable depth of sedation. The DISE-TCI-bispectral analysis procedure is a step towards a required reproducible protocol of sleep endoscopy &#8212; capable of standardization. However it is not yet known whether these observed obstruction patterns also correspond to findings in natural sleep.

Drug-Induced Sleep Endoscopy DISE with Target Controlled Infusion TCI and Bispectral Analysis in Obstructive Sleep Apnea

The aim of this study was to establish a standardized protocol for sleep endoscopy to differentiate obstruction patterns in obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Target-controlled infusion (TCI) of the sedative was combined with real-time monitoring of the depth of sedation using bispectral analysis.

The aim of this study was to establish a standardized protocol for drug-induced sleep endoscopy (DISE) to differentiate obstruction patterns in ...

Halogenated Agent Delivery in Porcine Model of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome via an Intensive Care Unit Type Device

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a common cause of hypoxemic respiratory failure and death in critically ill patients, and there is an urgent need to find effective therapies. Preclinical studies have shown that inhaled halogenated agents may have beneficial effects in animal models of ARDS. The development of new devices to administer halogenated agents using modern intensive care unit (ICU) ventilators has significantly simplified the dispensing of halogenated agents to ICU patients. Because previous experimental and clinical research suggested potential benefits of halogenated volatiles, such as sevoflurane or isoflurane, for lung alveolar epithelial injury and inflammation, two pathophysiologic landmarks of diffuse alveolar damage during ARDS, we designed an animal model to understand the mechanisms of the effects of halogenated agents on lung injury and repair. After general anesthesia, tracheal intubation, and the initiation of mechanical ventilation, ARDS was induced in piglets via the intratracheal instillation of hydrochloric acid. Then, the piglets were sedated with inhaled sevoflurane or isoflurane using an ICU-type device, and the animals were ventilated with lung-protective mechanical ventilation during a 4 h period. During the study period, blood and alveolar samples were collected to evaluate arterial oxygenation, the permeability of the alveolar-capillary membrane, alveolar fluid clearance, and lung inflammation. Mechanical ventilation parameters were also collected throughout the experiment. Although this model induced a marked decrease in arterial oxygenation with altered alveolar-capillary permeability, it is reproducible and is characterized by a rapid onset, good stability over time, and no fatal complications.
We have developed a piglet model of acid aspiration that reproduces most of the physiological, biological, and pathological features of clinical ARDS, and it will be helpful to further our understanding of the potential lung-protective effects of halogenated agents delivered through devices used for inhaled ICU sedation.

We describe a model of hydrochloric acid-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in piglets receiving sedation with halogenated agents, isoflurane and sevoflurane, through a device used for inhaled intensive care sedation. This model can be used to investigate the biological mechanisms of halogenated agents on lung injury and repair.

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a common cause of hypoxemic respiratory failure and death in critically ill patients, and there is an urgent ...

Endotracheal Intubation Using a Flexible Intubation Endoscope as a Standardized Model for Safe Airway Management in Swine

Endotracheal intubation is often a basic requirement for translational research in porcine models for various interventions that require a secured airway or high ventilation pressures. Endotracheal intubation is a challenging skill,&#160;requiring a minimum number of successful endotracheal intubations to achieve a high success rate under optimal conditions, which is often unachievable for non-anaesthesiology researchers. Due to the specific porcine airway anatomy, a difficult airway can usually be assumed. The impossibility of establishing a secure airway can result in injury, adverse events, or death of the laboratory animal. Using a prospective, randomized, controlled evaluation approach, it has been shown that fiberoptic-assisted endotracheal intubation takes longer but has a higher first-pass success rate than conventional intubation without causing clinically relevant drops in oxygen saturation. This model presents a standardized regimen for endoscopically guided endotracheal intubation, providing a secured airway, especially for researchers who are inexperienced in the technique of endotracheal intubation via direct laryngoscopy. This procedure is expected to minimize animal suffering and unnecessary animal losses.

The use of pigs in research has increased in recent years. Nevertheless, pigs are characterized by difficult airway anatomy. By demonstrating how to perform endoscopically guided endotracheal intubation, the present protocol aims to further increase laboratory animals' safety to avoid animal suffering and unnecessary death.

Endotracheal intubation is often a basic requirement for translational research in porcine models for various interventions that require a secured airway ...

Image Acquisition using Portable Sonography for Emergency Airway Management

With its increasing popularity and accessibility, portable ultrasonography has been rapidly adapted not only to improve the perioperative care of patients, but also to address the potential benefits of employing ultrasound in airway management. The benefits of point of care ultrasound (POCUS) include its portability, the speed at which it can be utilized, and its lack of invasiveness or exposure of the patient to radiation of other imaging modalities.
Two primary indications for airway POCUS include confirmation of endotracheal intubation and identification of the cricothyroid membrane in the event a surgical airway is required. In this article, the technique of using ultrasound to confirm endotracheal intubation and the relevant anatomy is described, along with the associated ultrasonographic images. In addition, identification of the anatomy of the cricothyroid membrane and the ultrasonographic acquisition of appropriate images to perform this procedure are reviewed.
Future advances include utilizing airway POCUS to identify patient characteristics that might indicate difficult airway management. Traditional bedside clinical exams have, at best, fair predictive values. The addition of ultrasonographic airway assessment has the potential to improve this predictive accuracy. This article describes the use of POCUS for airway management, and initial evidence suggests that this has improved the diagnostic accuracy of predicting a difficult airway. Given that one of the limitations of airway POCUS is that it requires a skilled sonographer, and image analysis can be operator dependent, this paper will provide recommendations to standardize the technical aspects of airway ultrasonography and promote further research utilizing sonography in airway management. The goal of this protocol is to educate researchers and medical health professionals and to advance the research in the field of airway POCUS.

Point of care ultrasound (POCUS) is increasingly being utilized in airway management. Presented here are some clinical utilities of POCUS, including differentiating endotracheal and esophageal intubation, identification of the cricothyroid membrane in the event a surgical airway is required, and measuring anterior neck soft tissue to predict difficult airway management.

With its increasing popularity and accessibility, portable ultrasonography has been rapidly adapted not only to improve the perioperative care of ...

A Non-Intubation Protocol for Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery with Preserved Autonomic Breathing

Non-Intubated Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery

Double-lumen intubation under general anesthesia is currently the most commonly performed intubation technique for pneumonectomy, wedge resection of the lung, and lobectomy. However, there is a high incidence of pulmonary complications arising from general anesthesia with tracheal intubation. Non-intubation with the preservation of voluntary breathing is an alternative to anesthesia. Non-intubation procedures minimize the adverse effects of tracheal intubation and general anesthesia, such as intubation-related airway trauma, ventilation-induced lung injury, residual neuromuscular blockade, and post-operative nausea and vomiting. However, the steps for non-intubation procedures are not detailed in many studies. Here, we present a concise non-intubated protocol for the performance of video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery with preserved autonomic breathing. This article identifies the conditions necessary to convert from non-intubated to intubated anesthesia and also discusses the advantages and limitations of non-intubated anesthesia. In this work, this intervention was performed on 58 patients. In addition, the results of a retrospective study are presented. Compared with intubated general anesthesia, patients in the non-intubated video-assisted thoracic surgery group had lower rates of post-operative pulmonary complications, shorter operative times, less intraoperative blood loss, shorter PACU stays, a lower number of days to chest drain removal, less post-operative drainage, and shorter hospital stays.

Author Spotlight: A Non-Intubated Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery with Multimodal Analgesia and Sevoflurane Inhalation Anesthesia 

Here, we present a non-intubated protocol for performing video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery with preserved autonomic breathing.

Double-lumen intubation under general anesthesia is currently the most commonly performed intubation technique for pneumonectomy, wedge resection of the ...

Awake Intubation in Difficult Airways: A Flexible Video Laryngoscope Method

The Flexible Rhino-Laryngoscope for Awake Nasotracheal Intubation

Difficulties or failures in securing the airway still occur and can lead to permanent disabilities and mortality. Patients with head and neck pathologies obstructing airway access are at risk of airway management failure once they lose spontaneous respiration. Awake flexible scope intubation is considered the gold standard for controlling the airway in such patients. Following a feasibility trial involving 25 patients with challenging airways, this article presents a step-by-step protocol for awake nasotracheal intubation using a flexible video rhino-laryngoscope, which is significantly shorter than conventional intubating flexible scopes. The flexible video laryngoscope only exceeds the intubating tube length by a few centimeters, allowing the tube to closely follow the flexible scope during the procedure. Once the scope reaches the pharynx, it can be easily manipulated with one hand, enabling the operator to focus on the safe advancement of the scope-intubating tube assembly through the glottis. Based on previous results and experience gained, this article highlights the potential benefits of the technique: the opportunity for a minimally invasive "quick look" preoperatively to establish a final management plan, a more convenient and safer tool for navigating distorted anatomy with a lower chance of intubating tube impingement and airway injury, and a fast and smooth procedure resulting in improved patient satisfaction.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Awake Nasotracheal Intubation with Flexible Video Rhino-Laryngoscopes

Presented here is a protocol for awake nasotracheal intubation using a flexible rhino-laryngoscope with a 300 mm working length. As this tool is minimally invasive and easy to manipulate, awake intubation performed with a flexible rhino-laryngoscope is well-tolerated, fast, and safe for patients with difficult airways.

Difficulties or failures in securing the airway still occur and can lead to permanent disabilities and mortality. Patients with head and neck pathologies ...

Topical Airway Anesthesia for Awake-endoscopic Intubation Using the Spray-as-you-go Technique with High Oxygen Flow

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Chapters in this video

A Novel Rescue Technique for Difficult Intubation and Difficult Ventilation

Guidelines for Elective Pediatric Fiberoptic Intubation

Endotracheal Intubation in Mice via Direct Laryngoscopy Using an Otoscope

An Improved Method for Rapid Intubation of the Trachea in Mice

Drug-Induced Sleep Endoscopy (DISE) with Target Controlled Infusion (TCI) and Bispectral Analysis in Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Halogenated Agent Delivery in Porcine Model of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome via an Intensive Care Unit Type Device

Endotracheal Intubation Using a Flexible Intubation Endoscope as a Standardized Model for Safe Airway Management in Swine

Image Acquisition using Portable Sonography for Emergency Airway Management

Non-Intubated Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery

The Flexible Rhino-Laryngoscope for Awake Nasotracheal Intubation