Thanks to Michaela Hall, Larissa Bispo and Gustavo Tavares for Technical Assistance.

Foodstuffs that are eaten raw or lightly cooked are of most concern for human health. Examples include salad vegetables, fruit, shellfish and crustaceans.
1. Sample Collection
<ol>
	<li>Collect samples under conditions that minimize contamination, and stored in separate, clean bags during transport. Once collected, samples should be stored at 4 &#176;C and processed within 24 hr.</li>
</ol>
2. Enriched Culture Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Fruits and vegetables:
	<ol>
		<li>Place approximately 10 g of material in a durable plastic bag. If processing larger material, concentrate on the skin of the fruit or vegetable. Add 90 ml 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 and process in a paddle blender for 30 sec. Alternatively, the material can be manually agitated if a paddle blender is not available.</li>
		<li>Collect the liquid into two 50 ml Falcon tubes. Centrifuge tubes at 4,000 x g for 7 min to pellet bacteria.</li>
		<li>Carefully remove the supernatant and suspend the pelleted bacteria in 30 ml of sterile Luria Bertani (LB) broth.</li>
		<li>Incubate on a shaker O/N, holding one tube at 25 &#176;C and the other at 37 &#176;C. Cultures should be shaken at 200 oscillations per minute (opm). Store cultures at 4 &#176;C until required.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Seafood:
	<ol>
		<li>Dissect out the stomach (oysters) or digestive tract (prawns) using sterile forceps and tweezers and place into a sterile 1.5 ml tube containing 200 &#181;l of 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0. Macerate the sample to create a homogenate.</li>
		<li>Dispense 5 ml of LB broth into two sterile 5 ml tubes, and inoculate each with the seafood homogenate.</li>
		<li>Incubate on a shaker O/N, holding one tube at 25 &#176;C and the other 37 &#176;C. Cultures should be shaken at 200 opm. Store cultures at 4 &#176;C until required.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Screening Cultures for Integrons
NOTE: Standard PCR protocols are used throughout this methodology, using buffers supplied with the enzyme, and a final MgCl2 concentration of 2.5 mM. If required, Lorenz (2011)24 has outlined PCR optimization and troubleshooting methods in an earlier issue of this journal.
<ol>
	<li>Boiled DNA preparation:
	<ol>
		<li>Dispense 100 &#181;l of enriched culture into a sterile 0.5 ml PCR tube. Heat the sample to 99 &#176;C for 10 min, using a water bath or heat block. Snap chill on ice for 2 min.</li>
		<li>Microcentrifuge at 14,000 x g for 5 min to pellet cell debris. Return to ice. DNA samples can be frozen at -20 &#176;C until required, but must be thawed on ice.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Screening for class 1 integrons using PCR: 
	NOTE: Mixed cultures from the O/N incubation are screened for class 1 integrons using the HS463a/HS464 PCR protocol (Table 1).
	<ol>
		<li>Thaw all PCR reagents on ice, away from any potential sources of contaminating DNA. Make up 48 &#181;l PCR mastermix per sample, including negative controls (Table 2). Dispense 48 &#181;l of PCR master mix to each tube, using barrier tips.</li>
		<li>Add 2 &#181;l of thawed DNA to individual PCR tubes using barrier tips. Run appropriate program in the PCR thermocycler.</li>
		<li>To assess the results of the amplification, electrophorese 7 &#181;l of PCR product on a 2% agarose gel poured and run in TBE buffer (90 mM TRIS-borate, 2 mM EDTA). Include a molecular weight marker, such as a 100 bp ladder.</li>
		<li>Post stain the gel with a DNA stain, and visualize using a UV transilluminator. Check that there has been no amplification in the negative control. A strong band at around 470 bp for any particular sample indicates that the mixed culture contains bacteria that carry a class 1 integron. Pure colonies will now be isolated from any mixed culture that returned a positive PCR.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Screening of Single Colonies for Class 1 Integrons
<ol>
	<li>Serial dilutions and spread plates: 
	NOTE: To isolate single colonies from the PCR-positive mixed cultures, the mixed culture is serially diluted 10-fold in sodium phosphate buffer, and then plated to recover single colonies.
	<ol>
		<li>Add 1 ml of mixed culture to 9 ml of 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 and mix by inversion. Add 1 ml of the dilution to a further 9 ml of phosphate buffer, and repeat until a serial dilution of 10-8 is reached.</li>
		<li>Spread 100 &#181;l of the 10-4 to 10-8 dilutions onto LB agar, in duplicate. Incubate the plates O/N at the same temperature used for the initial mixed culture. Plates can then be stored at 4 &#176;C until required, however it is best to process the single colonies fairly promptly.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Single colony selection and boiled DNA preparation:
	<ol>
		<li>Pick single colonies from the serial dilution plates, selecting as many different colony types as possible, using criteria such as colony size, shape and color. Use sterile toothpicks to select single colonies from the spread plate.</li>
		<li>Touch the toothpick to the colony, and then transfer into a PCR tube containing 100 &#181;l of sterile water. If large numbers of colonies are to be screened, then colonies can be prepared in a microtiter tray. Spin the toothpick between the fingers to dislodge some of the cells into the water.</li>
		<li>Using the same toothpick, inoculate an LB plate with a streak of the colony. Large numbers of colonies can be stored on labelled plates if each streak is about 1 cm long.&#160;Repeat steps 1 to 3 until you have selected an appropriate number of isolates.</li>
		<li>Incubate the LB plates O/N, at the same temperature as that used for the initial enriched culture. Cultures can then be stored at 4 &#176;C until required.</li>
		<li>For preparing DNA from the bacterial suspensions, follow the steps as outlined in section 3.1. For screening of pure culture lysates, perform the HS463a/HS464 PCR as outlined in section 3.2. Isolates that return a positive PCR will be used for preparation of genomic DNA (section 5), and for further analyses.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Genomic DNA Extraction of Integron-positive Single Colonies Using Bead Beating25
<ol>
	<li>Inoculate 5 ml of LB broth with a sample of the pure culture isolated in section 4.2. Incubate O/N, shaking at the same temperature that was used for the initial enriched culture.</li>
	<li>Pellet cells at 4,000 x g for 7 min, then remove the supernatant. Resuspend the pelleted cells in 1 ml CLS-TC solution in a Lysing Matrix E fast prep tube. Using a bead beating machine, process the sample at 5.5 m/sec for 30 sec.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge tube at 14,000 x g for 5 min and recover 700 &#181;l of supernatant into a sterile 1.5 ml tube.</li>
	<li>Add 700 &#181;l of binding matrix diluted 1:5 with 6 M guanidinium thiocyanate and mix at RT for 5 min. Centrifuge at 14,000 x g for 1 min, discard supernatant.</li>
	<li>Add 800 &#181;l salt ethanol wash (70% ethanol, 0.1 M sodium acetate) and vortex until the pellet is fully resuspended. Wash for 5 min at RT, centrifuge at 14,000 x g for 1 min and discard supernatant. Ensure all supernatant has been removed, using a micropipette if necessary, then allow to air dry for 5 min.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the pellet matrix in 200 &#181;l TE (10 mM Tris-HCl, 1mM EDTA, pH 7.6) by pipetting up and down. Incubate at RT for 3 min. Centrifuge at 14,000 x g for 3 min and transfer 160 &#181;l of the eluted DNA into a sterile tube. Run an aliquot of the genomic DNA extraction on a 2% w/v agarose gel to check the yield and integrity of the DNA extraction. The purified genomic DNA is stored at -20 &#176;C and defrosted on ice when required for PCR testing.</li>
</ol>
6. Diagnostic PCRs and DNA Sequencing
NOTE: The genomic DNA prepared in section 5 will be used for all diagnostic PCRs, and to confirm the positive test for class 1 integrons.
<ol>
	<li>Thaw genomic DNA on ice, briefly vortex the DNA sample and pulse spin at 14,000 x g for 20 sec. Repeat the PCR for the class 1 integron-integrase gene using HS463a/HS464 (Table 1), confirming that the isolate is positive for the 471 bp amplicon (Section 3.2).</li>
	<li>Identification of positive cultures to species level is achieved by analysis of the small subunit rRNA gene (16S rDNA). Amplify the 16S gene using primers f27/r1492 (Table 1). Check the PCR products using electrophoresis. All bacterial targets should generate a 16S amplicon of about 1450 bp.</li>
	<li>Sequence the 16S rRNA gene amplicon to determine species identity, but since there are likely to be multiple positive PCRs from step 6.2, and many of these positives will be the same bacterial species, we will first distinguish different species using restriction digestion of the 16S PCR product.
	<ol>
		<li>Digest an aliquot of the 16S PCR with the restriction enzyme Hinf1. Any enzyme that recognizes 4 bp cleavage sites will do, but Hinf1 generates good diversity from 16S targets, and is a reliable, inexpensive enzyme.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set up a 30 &#181;l restriction digest mastermix (Table 2) in a sterile tube and add 20 &#181;l of un-purfied 16S PCR product. Incubate in a 37 &#176;C water bath O/N. Check the digest on a 2% agarose gel.</li>
	<li>Score the digestion patterns produced by Hinf1. Isolates with the same 16S restriction profile are likely to be the same species. Rather than sequencing every 16S PCR product, sequence at most three representatives of each Hinf1 restriction pattern.</li>
	<li>Purify the 16S PCR products using a commercial kit. A single stranded exonuclease kit can be used, but column based or precipitation methods also work well to remove unincorporated primers and single stranded DNAs. Sequence the 16S amplicons using primer r910 (Table 1), setting up the reactions as specified by the sequencing facility.</li>
	<li>Use the resulting DNA sequence to interrogate the NCBI DNA database with the blastn function (<a href="http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi" target="_blank">http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi</a>). Greater than 97% nucleotide identity is usually taken as species identity.</li>
</ol>
7. Mapping and Characterization of Integrons and Cassette Arrays
NOTE: Class 1 integrons emanating from human-dominated ecosystems are likely to be the most common integrons in all your samples. These integrons all have a recent single origin, and therefore have a highly conserved DNA sequence5.
<ol>
	<li>Differentiate between a class 1 integrons emanating from human sources and those that occur naturally in environmental samples by performing a PCR with primer set intI1F165/intI1R47610 (Table 1). 
	NOTE: Class 1 integrons from clinical or commensal bacteria will generate a ~300 bp product, while environmental class 1 integrons will not generate any product.</li>
	<li>Characterize the clinical integrons by amplifying the cassette array with primer set HS458/HS459. This PCR will amplify the region between intI1 and the 3&#8217; conserved segment at the terminus of most cassette arrays. Because the number and identity of cassettes is variable, the size of the PCR product will also vary.</li>
	<li>Purify amplicons and sequence the DNA using each of the amplification primers. Use sequences to interrogate DNA databases using the blastn function (<a href="http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi" target="_blank">http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi</a>).</li>
	<li>Ensure naming of cassettes follow standardized nomenclature9, since many data depositions for integron gene cassettes use inconsistent or ambiguous names. Give particular attention to novel gene cassettes, since these may encode new phenotypes, including genes that confer increased transmissibility, pathogenicity or virulence8,21. 
	NOTE: Preclinical forms of the class 1 integron still circulate in natural environments. In particular, those that are linked to active Tn402 transposons are of most interest26. The cassette arrays of these integrons will not amplify with primer set HS458/HS459, but can be amplified with the MRG284/MRG285 primer set (Table 1), generating amplicons of variable size dependent on cassette content. PCR products should be purified and DNA sequenced as outlined in 7.2.</li>
</ol>

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<li>Gillings, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Evolutionary+consequences+of+antibiotic+use+for+the+resistome%2C+mobilome+and+microbial+pangenome%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front.+Microbiol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Evolutionary consequences of antibiotic use for the resistome, mobilome and microbial pangenome.</a> Front. Microbiol. 4, 4(2013).</li>
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<li>Gaze, W. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Impacts+of+anthropogenic+activity+on+the+ecology+of+class+1+integrons+and+integron-associated+genes+in+the+environment%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22ISME+J%22%5BJournal%5D)">Impacts of anthropogenic activity on the ecology of class 1 integrons and integron-associated genes in the environment.</a> ISME J. 5, 1253-1261 (2011).</li>
<li>Gerzova, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Characterization+of+microbiota+composition+and+presence+of+selected+antibiotic+resistance+genes+in+carriage+water+of+ornamental+fish%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+ONE%22%5BJournal%5D)">Characterization of microbiota composition and presence of selected antibiotic resistance genes in carriage water of ornamental fish.</a> PLoS ONE. 9, e103865(2014).</li>
<li>Power, M., Emery, S., Gillings, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Into+the+wild%3A+dissemination+of+antibiotic+resistance+determinants+via+a+species+recovery+program%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+ONE%22%5BJournal%5D)">Into the wild: dissemination of antibiotic resistance determinants via a species recovery program.</a> PLoS ONE. 8, e63017(2013).</li>
<li>Stokes, H. W., Gillings, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Gene+flow%2C+mobile+genetic+elements+and+the+recruitment+of+antibiotic+resistance+genes+into+Gram-negative+pathogens%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22FEMS+Microbiol.+Rev%22%5BJournal%5D)">Gene flow, mobile genetic elements and the recruitment of antibiotic resistance genes into Gram-negative pathogens.</a> FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 35 (5), 790-819 (2011).</li>
<li>Moura, A., Oliveira, C., Henriques, I., Smalla, K., Correia, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Broad+diversity+of+conjugative+plasmids+in+integron-carrying+bacteria+from+wastewater+environments%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22FEMS+Microbiol.+Lett%22%5BJournal%5D)">Broad diversity of conjugative plasmids in integron-carrying bacteria from wastewater environments.</a> FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 330 (2), 157-164 (2012).</li>
<li>Schlüter, A., Krause, L., Szczepanowski, R., Goesmann, A., Pühler, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Genetic+diversity+and+composition+of+a+plasmid+metagenome+from+a+wastewater+treatment+plant%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J.+Biotech%22%5BJournal%5D)">Genetic diversity and composition of a plasmid metagenome from a wastewater treatment plant.</a> J. Biotech. 136 (1-2), 65-76 (2008).</li>
<li>Taylor, N. G. H., Verner-Jeffreys, D. W., Baker-Austin, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Aquatic+systems%3A+maintaining%2C+mixing+and+mobilising+antimicrobial+resistance%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22TREE%22%5BJournal%5D)">Aquatic systems: maintaining, mixing and mobilising antimicrobial resistance.</a> TREE. 26 (6), 278-284 (2011).</li>
<li>Stalder, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Quantitative+and+qualitative+impact+of+hospital+effluent+on+dissemination+of+the+integron+pool%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22ISME+J%22%5BJournal%5D)">Quantitative and qualitative impact of hospital effluent on dissemination of the integron pool.</a> ISME J. 8, 768-777 (2014).</li>
<li>Allen, H. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Call+of+the+wild%3A+antibiotic+resistance+genes+in+natural+environments%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature+Rev.+Microbiol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Call of the wild: antibiotic resistance genes in natural environments.</a> Nature Rev. Microbiol. 8, 251-259 (2010).</li>
<li>Wellington, E. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+role+of+the+natural+environment+in+the+emergence+of+antibiotic+resistance+in+Gram-negative+bacteria%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Lancet+Infect.+Dis%22%5BJournal%5D)">The role of the natural environment in the emergence of antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria.</a> Lancet Infect. Dis. 13 (2), 155-165 (2013).</li>
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</ol>

The authors have nothing relevant to disclose.

The identification of integrons and their associated gene cassettes is potentially a key step in predicting the emergence of new opportunistic pathogens, tracking pathways for pathogens into the human food chain, and identifying new resistance and virulence determinants8,21,26. The aim of this paper was to describe a streamlined approach for screening samples for class 1 integrons, characterizing their cassette arrays and identifying the bacterial species in which they reside. Critical steps in the protocol in...

The discovery of antibiotics was one of the greatest scientific achievements of the 20th century. However, the use and abuse of antibiotics has led to the rapid evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria, and these now pose a serious threat to public health in the 21st century. The rise of bacterial strains resistant to most treatment options raises the possibility we are entering an era where antimicrobial drugs are no longer effective1,2.
The genetic machinery that confers antibiotic resistance is an ancient system, predating humans and antibiotic selection pressures by millions of years3. Mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids, transposons, genomic islands, integrative conjugative elements and integrons can disseminate antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) both within and between bacterial species4. Of these, integrons have played a central role in the spread of ARG, despite the fact that they rely upon plasmids and transposons for mobilization and insertion into bacterial genomes5. Integrons capture gene cassettes using an integron-integrase, and then express cassettes using an integron encoded promoter6,7 (Figure 1). Integron gene cassettes are small mobile elements consisting of single open reading frames (ORF) whose products can confer resistance to antibiotics or disinfectants8. Class 1 integrons are the integrons most commonly recovered from clinical isolates5, where they have collectively acquired over 130 different antibiotic resistance gene cassettes9.
The spread of class 1 integrons into human-associated commensal and pathogenic bacteria generates human waste streams that contain large numbers of these genetic elements10. An estimated 1019 bacteria that contain class 1 integrons are released via sewage sludge each year in the United Kingdom11. It is therefore not surprising that class 1 integrons conferring antibiotic resistances are now being detected in microbiota of wild birds, fish, and other native wildlife12-14. Releasing integrons back into the environment poses a significant public health threat, since acquisition of new gene cassettes and complex rearrangements with other mobile elements continues to occur, particularly in sewage treatment plants and other water bodies15-18. The natural environment then becomes a fertile recruiting ground for new resistance determinants and opportunistic pathogens19,20. Novel integron-containing bacteria and new ARGs can circle back into the human community through contaminated water and food21,22. Surveillance of environmental ARGs is a key strategy for understanding and managing antibiotic resistance in the future23. In particular, attention should be paid to foodstuffs that are eaten raw or lightly cooked, since these present the greatest threat for transmission of new mobile elements and pathogens.
In this protocol, a streamlined approach for detecting, identifying and characterizing class 1 integrons and their associated gene cassettes in foodstuffs are outlined (Figure 2). Using a combination of culturing and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), integrons can be rapidly detected in complex bacterial communities and individual isolates. Methods for identifying the species of bacteria and the conformation and identity of the integron-associated gene cassettes are given. The method is suitable for a broad range of plant and animal foods, and examples of typical workflows are given for each of these food types.

<table><tbody><tr><td>GoTaq Colourless Mastermix</td><td>Promega</td><td>M7132</td><td>Used in all PCRs</td></tr><tr><td>RNAse (Ribonuclease A from bovine pancreas)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>R6513-10MG</td><td>Used in all PCRs</td></tr><tr><td>HinFI restriction enzyme</td><td>Promega</td><td>R6201</td><td>Used to digest 16S rDNA PCR poducts. Enzyme comes with optimal buffer and BSA</td></tr><tr><td>100 bp ladder</td><td>GE Healthcare</td><td>27400701</td><td>Used as a size standard on all agarose gels</td></tr><tr><td>GelRed DNA stain</td><td>Biotium</td><td>41003</td><td>CAUTION: Personal protection must be worn when handling this material</td></tr><tr><td>Guanidinium thiocyanate</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>AM9422</td><td>CAUTION: Personal protection must be worn when handling this material</td></tr><tr><td>CLS-TC Solution</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>6540409</td><td>Resuspension solution used at the begining of the genomic DNA extraction</td></tr><tr><td>Lysing Matrix E FastPrep tubes</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>116914500</td><td>Tube required for mechanical disruption of bacterial cell walls. This code is used for packs of 500 tubes, smaller quantities are available.</td></tr><tr><td>Binding matrix</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>116540408</td><td>Diluted 1:5 with 6 M guanidinium thiocyanate and used in the genomic DNA extraction method.</td></tr><tr><td>Fast Prep machine</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>Number of options available</td><td>MP Biomedicals has a number of FastPrep machines available to purchase. Visit &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mpbio.com&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;http://www.mpbio.com&lt;/a&gt; for more information</td></tr></tbody></table>

screening foodstuffs for class 1 integrons and gene cassettes

Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to health in the 21st century. Acquisition of resistance genes via lateral gene transfer is a major factor in the spread of diverse resistance mechanisms. Amongst the DNA elements facilitating lateral transfer, the class 1 integrons have largely been responsible for spreading antibiotic resistance determinants amongst Gram negative pathogens. In total, these integrons have acquired and disseminated over 130 different antibiotic resistance genes. With continued antibiotic use, class 1 integrons have become ubiquitous in commensals and pathogens of humans and their domesticated animals. As a consequence, they can now be found in all human waste streams, where they continue to acquire new genes, and have the potential to cycle back into humans via the food chain. This protocol details a streamlined approach for detecting class 1 integrons and their associated resistance gene cassettes in foodstuffs, using culturing and PCR. Using this protocol, researchers should be able to: collect and prepare samples to make enriched cultures and screen for class 1 integrons; isolate single bacterial colonies to identify integron-positive isolates; identify bacterial species that contain class 1 integrons; and characterize these integrons and their associated gene cassettes.

Screening of mixed cultures and bacterial isolates for intI1
Primer set HS463a/HS464 PCR can be used to detect the presence of the class 1 integron-integrase gene, intI1 (Figure 1). This primer set works well for detecting intI1 in mixed cultures, and is also used to screen bacterial colonies harvested from spread plates (Figure 2). Positive isolates should generate a single strong band at 471 bp using this primer set (Figure 3A...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Screening Foodstuffs for Class 1 Integrons and Gene Cassettes at JoVE.com

Screening Foodstuffs for Class 1 Integrons and Gene Cassettes

This protocol describes the detection of class 1 integrons and their associated gene cassettes in foodstuffs.

Antibiotic resistance is one of the greatest threats to health in the 21st century. Acquisition of resistance genes via lateral gene transfer is a major ...

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Universidad San Sebastian

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

9.0K Views.  Macquarie University. This protocol describes the detection of class 1 integrons and their associated gene cassettes in foodstuffs. 

Video: Screening Foodstuffs for Class 1 Integrons and Gene Cassettes

Site-specific Bacterial Chromosome Engineering: &#934;C31 Integrase Mediated Cassette Exchange (IMCE)

The bacterial chromosome may be used to stably maintain foreign DNA in the mega-base range1. Integration into the chromosome circumvents issues such as plasmid replication, plasmid stability, plasmid incompatibility, and plasmid copy number variance. This method uses the site-specific integrase from the Streptomyces phage (&Phi;) C312,3. The &Phi;C31 integrase catalyzes a direct recombination between two specific DNA sites: attB and attP (34 and 39 bp, respectively)4. This recombination is stable and does not revert5. A "landing pad" (LP) sequence consisting of a spectinomycin- resistance gene, aadA (SpR), and the E. coli &szlig;-glucuronidase gene (uidA) flanked by attP sites has been integrated into the chromosomes of Sinorhizobium meliloti, Ochrobactrum anthropi, and Agrobacterium tumefaciens in an intergenic region, the ampC locus, and the tetA locus, respectively. S. meliloti is used in this protocol. Mobilizable donor vectors containing attB sites flanking a stuffer red fluorescent protein (rfp) gene and an antibiotic resistance gene have also been constructed. In this example the gentamicin resistant plasmid pJH110 is used. The rfp gene6 may be replaced with a desired construct using SphI and PstI. Alternatively a synthetic construct flanked by attB sites may be sub-cloned into a mobilizable vector such as pK19mob7. The expression of the &Phi;C31 integrase gene (cloned from pHS628) is driven by the lac promoter, on a mobilizable broad host range plasmid pRK78139.
A tetraparental mating protocol is used to transfer the donor cassette into the LP strain thereby replacing the markers in the LP sequence with the donor cassette. These cells are trans-integrants. Trans-integrants are formed with a typical efficiency of 0.5%. Trans-integrants are typically found within the first 500-1,000 colonies screened by antibiotic sensitivity or blue-white screening using 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-beta-D-glucuronic acid (X-gluc). This protocol contains the mating and selection procedures for creating and isolating trans-integrants.

A quick and efficient method to integrate foreign DNA of interest into pre-made acceptor strains, termed landing pad strains, is described. The method allows site-specific integration of a DNA cassette into the engineered landing pad locus of a given strain, through conjugation and expression of the &#934;C31 integrase.

The bacterial chromosome may be used to stably maintain foreign DNA in the mega-base range1. Integration into the chromosome circumvents issues such as ...

Bioengineering

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

A first approach to study the function of an unknown gene in bacteria is to create a knock-out of this gene. Here, we describe a robust and fast protocol for transferring gene deletion mutations from one Escherichia coli strain to another by using generalized transduction with the bacteriophage P1. This method requires that the mutation be selectable (e.g., based on gene disruptions using antibiotic cassette insertions). Such antibiotic cassettes can be mobilized from a donor strain and introduced into a recipient strain of interest to quickly and easily generate a gene deletion mutant. The antibiotic cassette can be designed to include flippase recognition sites that allow the excision of the cassette by a site-specific recombinase to produce a clean knock-out with only a ~100-base-pair-long scar sequence in the genome. We demonstrate the protocol by knocking out the tamA gene encoding an assembly factor involved in autotransporter biogenesis and test the effect of this knock-out on the biogenesis and function of two trimeric autotransporter adhesins. Though gene deletion by P1 transduction has its limitations, the ease and speed of its implementation make it an attractive alternative to other methods of gene deletion.

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

Here we present a protocol for the use of pre-existing antibiotic resistance-cassette deletion constructs as a basis for making deletion mutants in other E. coli strains. Such deletion mutations can be mobilized and inserted into the corresponding locus of a recipient strain using P1 bacteriophage transduction.

A first approach to study the function of an unknown gene in bacteria is to create a knock-out of this gene. Here, we describe a robust and fast protocol ...

Genetics

Enrichment and Detection of Clostridium perfringens Toxinotypes in Retail Food Samples

Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) is a prolific toxin producer and causes a wide range of diseases in various hosts. C. perfringens is categorized into five different toxinotypes, A through E, based on the carriage of four major toxin genes. The prevalence and distribution of these various toxinotypes is understudied, especially their pervasiveness in American retail food. Of particular interest to us are the type B and D strains, which produce epsilon toxin, an extremely lethal toxin suggested to be the environmental trigger of multiple sclerosis in humans. To evaluate the presence of different C. perfringens toxinotypes in various food samples, we developed an easy method to selectively culture these bacteria without the use of an anaerobic container system only involving three culturing steps. Food is purchased from local grocery stores and transported to the laboratory under ambient conditions. Samples are minced and inoculated into modified rapid perfringens media (RPM) and incubated overnight at 37 &#176;C in a sealed, airtight conical tube. Overnight cultures are inoculated onto a bottom layer of solid Tryptose Sulfite Cycloserine (TSC) agar, and then overlaid with a top layer of molten TSC agar, creating a &#34;sandwiched&#34;, anaerobic environment. Agar plates are incubated overnight at 37 &#176;C and then evaluated for appearance of black, sulfite-reducing colonies. C. perfringens-suspected colonies are removed from the TSC agar using sterile eye droppers, and inoculated into RPM and sub-cultured overnight at 37 &#176;C in an airtight conical tube. DNA is extracted from the RPM subculture, and then analyzed for the presence of C. perfringens toxin genes via polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Depending on the type of food sampled, typically 15&#8211;20% of samples test positive for C. perfringens.

Enrichment and Detection of Clostridium perfringens Toxinotypes in Retail Food Samples

The objective of this protocol is to detect different Clostridium perfringens toxinotypes in locally purchased foods, particularly epsilon toxin producing strain types B and D, without the use of anaerobic chambers.

Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) is a prolific toxin producer and causes a wide range of diseases in various hosts. C. perfringens is categorized ...

Multiplex PCR Assay for Typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Mec Types I to V in Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing is a very important molecular tool for understanding the epidemiology and clonal strain relatedness of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), particularly with the emerging outbreaks of community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) occurring on a worldwide basis. Traditional PCR typing schemes classify SCCmec by targeting and identifying the individual mec and ccr gene complex types, but require the use of many primer sets and multiple individual PCR experiments. We designed and published a simple multiplex PCR assay for quick-screening of major SCCmec types and subtypes I to V, and later updated it as new sequence information became available. This simple assay targets individual SCCmec types in a single reaction, is easy to interpret and has been extensively used worldwide. However, due to the sophisticated nature of the assay and the large number of primers present in the reaction, there is the potential for difficulties while adapting this assay to individual laboratories. To facilitate the process of establishing a MRSA SCCmec assay, here we demonstrate how to set up our multiplex PCR assay, and discuss some of the vital steps and procedural nuances that make it successful.

Multiplex PCR Assay for Typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Mec Types I to V in Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

We demonstrate a simple multiplex PCR assay for quick-screening and typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) types I-V for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and provide some of the vital steps and procedural nuances that make it successful for adapting this assay to individual laboratories.

Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing  is a very important molecular tool for understanding the epidemiology and  clonal strain ...

Immunology and Infection

Site-Directed &#966;C31-Mediated Integration and Cassette Exchange in Anopheles Vectors of Malaria

Functional genomic analysis and related strategies for genetic control of malaria rely on validated and reproducible methods to accurately modify the genome of Anopheles mosquitoes. Amongst these methods, the &#966;C31 system allows precise and stable site-directed integration of transgenes, or the substitution of integrated transgenic cassettes via recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE). This method relies on the action of the Streptomyces &#966;C31 bacteriophage integrase to catalyze recombination between two specific attachment sites designated attP (derived from the phage) and attB (derived from the host bacterium). The system uses one or two attP sites that have been integrated previously into the mosquito genome and attB site(s) in the donor template DNA. Here we illustrate how to stably modify the genome of attP-bearing Anopheles docking lines using two plasmids: an attB-tagged donor carrying the integration or exchange template and a helper plasmid encoding the &#966;C31 integrase. We report two representative results of &#966;C31-mediated site-directed modification: the single integration of a transgenic cassette in An. stephensi and RMCE in An. gambiae mosquitoes. &#966;C31-mediated genome manipulation offers the advantage of reproducible transgene expression from validated, fitness neutral genomic sites, allowing comparative qualitative and quantitative analyses of phenotypes. The site-directed nature of the integration also substantially simplifies the validation of the single insertion site and the mating scheme to obtain a stable transgenic line. These and other characteristics make the &#966;C31 system an essential component of the genetic toolkit for the transgenic manipulation of malaria mosquitoes and other insect vectors.

The protocol describes how to achieve site-directed modifications in the genome of Anopheles malaria mosquitoes using the &#966;C31 system. Modifications described include both the integration and the exchange of transgenic cassettes in the genome of attP-bearing docking lines.

Functional genomic analysis and related strategies for genetic control of malaria rely on validated and reproducible methods to accurately modify the ...

Screening and Isolation of C-Glycoside-Cleaving Intestinal Bacteria

C-glycosides are commonly found in medicinal plants and exhibit extensive structural diversity along with various bioactivities, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antioxidant, and antineoplastic activities. In C-glycosides, the anomeric carbon of the sugar moiety is directly connected to an aglycone through carbon-carbon bonding. Compared with O-glycosides, C-glycosides are structurally stable and resistant to acids and enzymes. Consequently, they are typically unbreakable, resulting in poor absorbability and low bioavailability. Interestingly, some intestinal bacteria can cleave C-C glycosidic bonds, providing a specific and environmentally friendly biological approach to degrade C-glycosides. In this study, a set of standard operating procedures (SOPs) was developed for screening intestinal bacteria capable of cleaving C-C glycosidic bonds based on the biotransformation model of natural compounds. The SOPs include the preparation and enrichment of intestinal bacteria, activity-oriented screening, and activity validation in a low-carbon source medium. This methodology provides a foundational reference for researchers aiming to isolate and study these specialized functional bacteria.

This study establishes a set of standard operating procedures (SOPs) for efficiently screening and isolating intestinal bacteria capable of cleaving C-glycosides.

C-glycosides are commonly found in medicinal plants and exhibit extensive structural diversity along with various bioactivities, including antibacterial, ...

Biochemistry

A High-throughput Platform for the Screening of Salmonella spp./Shigella spp.

Fecal-oral transmission of acute gastroenteritis occurs from time to time, especially when people who handled food and water are infected by Salmonella spp./Shigella spp. The gold standard method for the detection of Salmonella spp./Shigella spp. is direct culture but this is labor-intensive and time-consuming. Here, we describe a high-throughput platform for Salmonella spp./Shigella spp. screening, using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) combined with guided culture. There are two major stages: real-time PCR and the guided culture. For the first stage (real-time PCR), we explain each step of the method: sample collection, pre-enrichment, DNA extraction and real-time PCR. If the real-time PCR result is positive, then the second stage (guided culture) is performed: selective culture, biochemical identification and serological characterization. We also illustrate representative results generated from it. The protocol described here would be a valuable platform for the rapid, specific, sensitive and high-throughput screening of Salmonella spp./Shigella spp.

A High-throughput Platform for the Screening of Salmonella spp./Shigella spp.

Salmonella spp./Shigella spp. are common pathogens attributed to diarrhea. Here, we describe a high-throughput platform for the screening of Salmonella spp./Shigella spp. using real-time PCR combined with guided culture.

Fecal-oral transmission of acute gastroenteritis occurs from time to time, especially when people who handled food and water are infected by Salmonella ...

Using Coculture to Detect Chemically Mediated Interspecies Interactions

In nature, bacteria rarely exist in isolation; they are instead surrounded by a diverse array of other microorganisms that alter the local environment by secreting metabolites. These metabolites have the potential to modulate the physiology and differentiation of their microbial neighbors and are likely important factors in the establishment and maintenance of complex microbial communities. We have developed a fluorescence-based coculture screen to identify such chemically mediated microbial interactions. The screen involves combining a fluorescent transcriptional reporter strain with environmental microbes on solid media and allowing the colonies to grow in coculture. The fluorescent transcriptional reporter is designed so that the chosen bacterial strain fluoresces when it is expressing a particular phenotype of interest (i.e. biofilm formation, sporulation, virulence factor production, etc.) Screening is performed under growth conditions where this phenotype is not expressed (and therefore the reporter strain is typically nonfluorescent). When an environmental microbe secretes a metabolite that activates this phenotype, it diffuses through the agar and activates the fluorescent reporter construct. This allows the inducing-metabolite-producing microbe to be detected: they are the nonfluorescent colonies most proximal to the fluorescent colonies. Thus, this screen allows the identification of environmental microbes that produce diffusible metabolites that activate a particular physiological response in a reporter strain. This publication discusses how to: a) select appropriate coculture screening conditions, b) prepare the reporter and environmental microbes for screening, c) perform the coculture screen, d) isolate putative inducing organisms, and e) confirm their activity in a secondary screen. We developed this method to screen for soil organisms that activate biofilm matrix-production in Bacillus subtilis; however, we also discuss considerations for applying this approach to other genetically tractable bacteria.

Bacteria produce secreted compounds that have the potential to affect the physiology of their microbial neighbors. Here we describe a coculture screen that allows detection of such chemically mediated interspecies interactions by mixing soil microbes with fluorescent transcriptional reporter strains of Bacillus subtilis on solid media.

In nature, bacteria rarely exist in isolation; they are instead surrounded by a diverse array of other microorganisms that alter the local environment by ...

Biology

Single&#45;Copy Gene Expression for Characterizing Multidrug Efflux Systems

Characterizing Multidrug Efflux Systems in Acinetobacter baumannii Using an Efflux&#45;Deficient Bacterial Strain and a Single&#45;Copy Gene Expression System

Acinetobacter baumannii is recognized as a challenging Gram-negative pathogen due to its widespread resistance to antibiotics. It is crucial to comprehend the mechanisms behind this resistance to design new and effective therapeutic options. Unfortunately, our ability to investigate these mechanisms in A. baumannii is hindered by the paucity of suitable genetic manipulation tools. Here, we describe methods for utilizing a chromosomal mini-Tn7-based system to achieve single-copy gene expression in an A. baumannii strain that lacks functional RND-type efflux mechanisms. Single-copy insertion and inducible efflux pump expression are quite advantageous, as the presence of RND efflux operons on high-copy number plasmids is often poorly tolerated by bacterial cells. Moreover, incorporating recombinant mini-Tn7 expression vectors into the chromosome of a surrogate A. baumannii host with increased efflux sensitivity helps circumvent interference from other efflux pumps. This system is valuable not only for investigating uncharacterized bacterial efflux pumps but also for assessing the effectiveness of potential inhibitors targeting these pumps.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Antibiotic Resistance Research Using an Efflux&#45;Deficient Bacterial Strain and a Single&#45;Copy Gene Expression System

We describe a facile procedure for the single-copy chromosomal complementation of an efflux pump gene using a mini-Tn7-based expression system into an engineered efflux-deficient strain of Acinetobacter baumannii. This precise genetic tool allows for controlled gene expression, which is key for the characterization of efflux pumps in multidrug resistant pathogens.

Acinetobacter baumannii is recognized as a challenging Gram-negative pathogen due to its widespread resistance to antibiotics. It is crucial to comprehend ...

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Screening Salmonella in Animal Food and Confirming Salmonella from Culture Isolation

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has emerged as a powerful nucleic acid amplification test for the rapid detection of numerous bacterial, fungal, parasitic, and viral agents. Salmonella is a bacterial pathogen of worldwide food safety concern, including food for animals. Presented here is a multi-laboratory-validated Salmonella LAMP protocol that can be used to rapidly screen animal food for the presence of Salmonella contamination and can also be used to confirm presumptive Salmonella isolates recovered from all food categories. The LAMP assay specifically targets the Salmonella invasion gene (invA) and is rapid, sensitive, and highly specific. Template DNAs are prepared from enrichment broths of animal food or pure cultures of presumptive Salmonella isolates. The LAMP reagent mixture is prepared by combining an isothermal master mix, primers, DNA template, and water. The LAMP assay runs at a constant temperature of 65 &#176;C for 30 min. Positive results are monitored via real-time fluorescence and can be detected as early as 5 min. The LAMP assay exhibits high tolerance to inhibitors in animal food or culture medium, serving as a rapid, reliable, robust, cost-effective, and user-friendly method for screening and confirming Salmonella. The LAMP method has recently been incorporated into the U.S. Food and Drug Administration&#8217;s Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM) Chapter 5.

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Screening Salmonella in Animal Food and Confirming Salmonella from Culture Isolation

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is an isothermal nucleic acid amplification test (iNAAT) that has attracted broad interest in the pathogen detection field. Here, we present a multi-laboratory-validated Salmonella LAMP protocol as a rapid, reliable, and robust method for screening Salmonella in animal food and confirming presumptive Salmonella from culture isolation.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has emerged as a powerful nucleic acid amplification test for the rapid detection of numerous bacterial, ...

Screening Foodstuffs for Class 1 Integrons and Gene Cassettes

Podsumowanie

Przeglądaj więcej filmów

Site-specific Bacterial Chromosome Engineering: ΦC31 Integrase Mediated Cassette Exchange (IMCE)

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

Enrichment and Detection of Clostridium perfringens Toxinotypes in Retail Food Samples

Multiplex PCR Assay for Typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Mec Types I to V in Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Site-Directed φC31-Mediated Integration and Cassette Exchange in Anopheles Vectors of Malaria

Screening and Isolation of C-Glycoside-Cleaving Intestinal Bacteria

A High-throughput Platform for the Screening of Salmonella spp./Shigella spp.

Using Coculture to Detect Chemically Mediated Interspecies Interactions

Characterizing Multidrug Efflux Systems in Acinetobacter baumannii Using an Efflux-Deficient Bacterial Strain and a Single-Copy Gene Expression System

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Screening Salmonella in Animal Food and Confirming Salmonella from Culture Isolation