Name: high resolution electron microscopy of the helicobacter pylori cag type iv secretion system pili produced in varying conditions of iron availability
Uploaded: 2014-11-21T14:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 9 min 5 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about High Resolution Electron Microscopy of the Helicobacter pylori Cag Type IV Secretion System Pili Produced in Varying Conditions of Iron Availability at JoVE.c

This research was supported by the Department of Veterans Affairs Career Development Award 1IK2BX001701 and the CTSA award UL1TR000445 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent official views of the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences or the National Institutes of Health. Scanning electron microscopy experiments were performed in part through the use of the VUMC Cell Imaging Shared Resource, supported by NIH grants CA68485, DK20593, DK58404, DK59637 and EY08126.

1. H.ヒトの胃上皮細胞と鉄可用性と共培養の様々な条件でピロリ菌の成長<ol><li> H.を選択これらの研究のためのピロリ菌株のPMSS1それが無傷のCAG病原性島を有しており、機能しているIV型分泌系を表現しているため。また、ネガティブコントロールとして同質遺伝子ケージ変異体（PMSSIΔCAGE）を利用する。 5％CO 2存在下、37℃で24時間、5％ヒツジ血液（血液寒天プレート）を補充したTSAプレート上で細菌を成長させる。 注：試薬を準備し、材料および装置の表で概説したような材料を組み立てる。各試薬の最終的な濃度は、括弧内に記載されています。 </li><li>滅菌綿棒を用いてプレートからの細菌をこすりや部品から製造された改質ブルセラブロス中に接種し（材料および機器の表を参照）およびコレステロールを補った。 37で一晩培養液をインキュベート毎分（rpm）200回転で振とうしながら、5％CO 2を補充した室内空気中のC°。 NOTE：コレステロール起因血清が複雑であるという事実のために、ウシ胎児血清の代わりに使用されている。結果のばらつきの原因となるようなヘムなどの栄養素の鉄の多数の供給源を含む。 </li><li>細菌培養の日に、12ウェルプレート（ウェル当たり約1×10 5細胞）でポリ-D-リシン処理したカバースリップ上にAGSヒト胃上皮細胞（ATCC CRL-1739）をシードする。 </li><li>次の日、100μMのFeCl 3を 、200μMのジピリジルの（合成鉄キレート剤）、または200μMのジピリジルプラス250μMのFeCl 3を補充しただけでは修正されたブルセラブロス中0.3のOD600以降に細菌培養を希釈。 200rpmで振盪しながら、5％CO 2を補充した室内空気中、37℃で4時間、これらの培養物をインキュベートする。 </li><li>千×gで遠心した細菌は、細胞を収集し、私を再懸濁する前に、上清を削除するにはnは新鮮修正ブルセラブロス等量のは、コレステロールを補った。文化の尺度OD600（×10 OD600 = 1.0 = 5.5 8細胞/ ml）及び20の感染多重度（MOI）の上皮細胞への細菌を追加：1。細菌細胞の生存率を評価するために、血液寒天プレート上に連続希釈し、プレート細菌細胞を実行する。 </li><li> Hをインキュベート走査電子顕微鏡（SEM）試料調製を行う前に、静的条件下で、5％CO 2の存在下、37℃で4時間ピロリおよびAGSヒト胃上皮細胞の共培養。 </li></ol> 2. SEM Hを可視化するためにサンプル調製ピロリ CAG-T4SS線毛<ol><li> Hを削除するピロリ菌とインキュベーターとデカント培養上清からのAGS共培養（IL-8 ELISAのために保存）。 0.05Mのカコジル酸ナトリウム緩衝液（pH7.4）で穏やかに3回洗浄する。 2.0％パラホルムアルデヒド溶液中で、室温で2.5〜4時間のサンプルを修正％グルタルアルデヒド、および0.05Mのカコジル酸ナトリウム緩衝液。一次固定した後、試料を0.05 Mカコジル酸ナトリウム緩衝液で3回洗浄する。 </li><li>つの連続10分間の固定ステップで0.05 Mカコジル酸ナトリウム緩衝液中の0.1％四酸化オスミウムを用いた二次固定を行う。二次固定した後、試料を0.05 Mカコジル酸ナトリウム緩衝液で3回洗浄する。 </li><li>一次および二次固定した後、 表1の通りのエタノール濃度を増加させて、順次洗浄することにより試料を脱水する。 </li><li>エタノール脱水後、液体二酸化炭素の3つの連続回の洗浄を行う。 1073 PSIの31.1ºCの温度及び圧力で臨界点乾燥機を用いて、臨界点でのドライサンプル。 </li><li>マウントは、アルミニウムのSEM試料スタブ上にカバースリップとの適切な接地を実現し、SEM画像中に充電を回避するために、サンプルエッジでコロイド銀の細い線を描く。 </li><li>コー​​トサンプルを5nmと試料の二次電子信号とエッジ効果を高めるためにスパッタコート機を用いて金 - パラジウム。 </li></ol>高解像度のSEM分析3.イメージングパラメータ<ol><li>電界放射銃走査電子顕微鏡（FEG-SEM）を持つビュー·サンプル。 </li><li> 5〜10ミリメートルの作動距離で高真空モードでの画像。 </li><li> 5 kVの加速電圧に設定してください。 </li><li> 2-2.5にスポットサイズを設定します。 </li><li>宿主 - 病原体インターフェースのより良いビューを達成するために、15〜25度の間の試料を傾けて。 </li><li>宿主 - 病原体相互作用のこれらの領域は線毛形成細菌のために濃縮されているように、高倍率の視聴のための上皮細胞のエッジに付着細菌を画像化する優先順位をつける。 </li></ol> Piliの数量化を評価するために4.統計分析<ol><li> H.を分析線毛/セルならびにpiliated脱pheを示す細胞のパーセント数を定量化するためにImageJソフトウェアを使用してピロリ CAG-T4SS線毛下記の指示に従ってNOTYPE。 </li><li> ImageJソフトウェアで開く顕微鏡写真ファイル。均一な幅（10-13 nm）を、長さ（60〜150 nm）を用いて、細菌細胞と宿主細胞との間に形成された構造として線毛を識別する。 注：線毛構造が主要なATPアーゼ大国IV型分泌線毛アセンブリをコードする遺伝子における不活性化を抱くようなΔ ケージ変異株として同質遺伝子株は、上のWTの細菌株上に存在するが、存在しない。 </li><li>直線ツールで線を引くと、次に「分析」タブをクリックすることにより、測定ツールを校正。ドロップダウンメニューから「セットスケール」を選択し、「既知の距離」というラベルの付いたボックスに倍率バーの値を入力し、適切な設定（ナノメートル）の長さの単位を設定します。 「OK」をクリックします。 </li><li>線毛の長さや幅を上に描画するために直線ツールを使用して、CAG-T4SS線毛を測定し、各線毛を測定するためには、 &quot;Ctrl-M」を押してください。測定された値を持つダイアログボックスを守ってください。これらの値を記録したりコピーし、表計算プログラムに貼り付けます。 </li><li>長さを使用し、幅のパラメータは、以前にCAG-T4SSのプロファイルに適合しない24、無視機能を設立しました。その後、10〜13 nmの幅と60〜150 nmの長さのカットオフ内にある値に基づいて線毛の数を定量化する。 </li><li>を、GraphPad Prismソフトウェアを使用して両側スチューデントt検定によって統計的に線毛の定量分析を行う。 </li></ol> 5.オプション：IL-8分泌の評価は、線毛の生産と相関する<ol><li>ステップ2.1から上清を用い、キットを製造業者の指示（材料および装置の表を参照）ごとに、IL-8のELISAを行う。 </li><li> IL-8は、宿主細胞によって分泌を分析し、培地単独中で成長WT PMSS1に対するパーセントのIL-8誘導を計算する。これを、GraphPad Prismを使用して、両側スチューデントt検定を用いて統計分析を実行するftware。 </li></ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

鉄は、細菌性病原体を含む人生のほとんどの形態、必須の微量栄養素​​である。侵入微生物の生存を制限するための努力では、脊椎動物のホストは「栄養免疫」18として知られるプロセスで栄養鉄を隔離する。これに応答して、細菌性病原体は、その周囲を感知し、そのような鉄獲得システム、毒素および毒素分泌機構19,20などの病原性機能の精緻化を調節するためにグローバルなシグナル伝達分子として鉄を使用するように進化してきた。 ピロリ菌は、鉄、亜鉛、および22を成長させるようなヘム、ヘモグロビン、トランスフェリン、ラクトフェリン23として代替鉄源を使用することができるマグネシウムなどの微量栄養素を必要とする。H.ピロリ菌は 、最も成功した病原体のように、それは、ホスト21からの栄養素の鉄を除去を助けるために病原性因子の幅広いレパートリーを進化してきました。一つの毒性因子、CagAは、エフェクターmolecuルCAG-T4SSのは、それが容易に栄養鉄源として細菌細胞によって使用され、複製15を促進することができる頂端表面に偏光された細胞の基底外側からトランスフェリンを再ルーティングに関与している。これにより、低鉄利用の条件のCagAタンパク質の分泌を促進するための直感的な進化戦略と思われる。 H.ピロリ CAG-T4SSは誘発炎症促進性宿主細胞応答のために重要な細菌の細胞小器官である。 CAG-T4SSの効果が十分に共培養し、感染の動物モデルの両方において研究されている。しかし、この毒素分泌系の高分子構造および組成の研究は、高解像度イメージングプロトコルの欠如によって妨げられてきた。 CAG-T4SSを研究我々の以前に公表された報告は、高分解能電子顕微鏡による細菌細胞あたり4 CAG-T4SS線毛の平均が24を分析して報告している。私たちの改善された方法を提供堅牢なイメージング技術は、細菌細胞の表面上のこの特徴の産生を促進する培養技術を用いてCAG-T4SSを可視化した。高分解能電界放出銃の走査型電子顕微鏡と組み合わせて培養技術の利用は、この撮影プロトコルのために重要である。 CAG-T4SS表面特徴の二倍の濃縮は、免疫組織化学を行うことに興味の研究者のための有意な増加はさらにCAG-T4SSの細胞内位置または組成物を特徴づけるためにそのような免疫蛍光法または免疫沈降技術として分析される。 CAG-T4SSの高分解能電子顕微鏡像が習得された後は、CAG-T4SS線毛25に対する細菌タンパク質の位置を決定するために、そのような免疫金標識のような他のアプリケーションを開発することが可能である。 我々の技術の一つの制限は、研究者がまだUSIに制限されているという事実であるCAG-T4SSの可視化のために共培養系ngの。 Hの単一のフィールドでは、サブセットのみ通常の培養条件下でのピロリ菌は、これらの構造（約50〜70％が、図3のパネルBを参照）を形成する。だから、フィールド内の多数の細胞は、非piliatedになります。これらの亜集団は、同じ場所に存在理由は不明であるが、これらの細胞は常に表面上の線毛を持つ細胞の線毛/セルとパーセントの両方の定量内会計処理されている。 CAG-T4SSのみホスト細菌の界面で観察されるので、SEMの試料調製物内の一次及び二次固定の手順は、タンパク質の構造及び真核生物および原核生物細胞の膜の両方の保存のために重要である。しかし、固定ステップが概説さよりも長く行われている場合、または溶液を新たに調製していない場合、過固定起こり得る。過剰な固定が発生した場合は、SEM下で観察し、CAG-T4SSこのによってマスクされたときに、サンプルが石の外観を持つことになります。 troublへeshoot、固定剤の存在下でインキュベートした低濃度の固定剤および/またはより短い時間を使用して、SEMの試料調製を繰り返す。 共培養系はまた、宿主タンパク質の大量の汚染に面倒な（例えば、質量分析法分析など）の生化学的特徴をレンダリングする。しかし、この細菌の分泌系の産生を調節する分子メカニズムを理解することは、最終的には、宿主細胞の非存在下でCAG-T4SS線毛の形成をトリガーする新しい技術につながる可能性があります。これは大幅な生化学的アッセイのための単離および精製技術を改善するであろう。 結論として、我々はHの増産で制限された鉄の可用性結果の状況を報告高分解能走査電子顕微鏡法によって可視化することができるピロリ CAG-T4SS。我々はまた、宿主 - 病原体interfa時にこの表面特徴の鉄依存抑制を報告CE。このアッセイは、最適化され、鉄調節毒素分泌物を形成し、宿主 - 微生物相互作用の様々に広く適用可能である多数の細菌性病原体のために利用することができる。

H. pylori infection is a significant risk factor for gastric cancer1. However, disease outcomes vary and depend on numerous factors such as host genetics, genetic diversity of H. pylori strains, and environmental elements such as host diet11. Previous reports have established that a correlation exists between H. pylori infection, iron deficiency (as measured by decreased blood ferritin and hemoglobin concentrations), and increased proinflammatory cytokine production, including IL-8 secretion, which ultimately leads to increased gastric disease progression12. Acute H. pylori infection is also associated with hypochlorhydria which impairs the host&#8217;s ability to absorb nutrient iron, and ultimately leads to changes in iron homeostasis13. These clinical findings suggest that iron availability within the gastic niche could be an important factor in disease outcome. In fact, animal models of H. pylori infection have demonstrated that low dietary iron consumption exacerbates gastric disease14. The reduced iron levels in these animals necessitate that H. pylori induce an iron-acquisition response in order to obtain the iron needed for bacterial replication. H. pylori has the capacity to perturb iron trafficking within host cells to facilitate bacterial replication in a CagA-dependent fashion15. Interestingly, the cag-pathogenicity island has been shown to be regulated by the iron-responsive transcription factor Fur16,17. Furthermore, Cag+ strains are associated with increased inflammation and gastric diseases such as cancer1. These findings support a model whereby H. pylori alters Cag-T4SS expression in an effort to obtain iron from host cells that reside in an iron deplete environment resulting in exacerbated disease outcomes. 
Two factors that increase inflammation and morbidity are Cag expression and low dietary iron intake. These facts support the hypothesis that reduced iron availability increases the production of Cag-T4SS pili at the host pathogen interface resulting in worse gastric disease11-14. The goal of the method provided in this manuscript is to establish the role of the micronutrient iron in the regulation of the Cag-T4SS pilus biogenesis. In previous work, we utilized two approaches to observe an iron-dependent increase in Cag-T4SS expression. First, output strains from animals maintained on high and low iron diets were analyzed and revealed that low-iron diet output strains produced more Cag-T4SS pili than high-iron diet strains14. Second, growing the H. pylori 7.13 strain in vitro in iron replete conditions resulted in reduced pili formation while cells grown in the presence of an iron chelator produced significantly more pili. 
We have continued to investigate the iron-dependent regulation of Cag-T4SS pili phenotype and offer the following optimized protocol and representative results performed with an additional Helicobacter pylori strain, PMSS1. The rationale behind the development of this technique was to correlate increased Cag-T4SS activity in conditions of iron-limitation with increased Cag-T4SS pilus formation. The broader implication and use of this technique will provide optimized culture conditions that result in elevated production of the Cag-T4SS pili. This assay will be useful to researchers seeking to determine the composition and architecture of the Cag-T4SS by enriching for this important bacterial surface feature. The sample preparation and visualization by field-emission gun electron microscopy has numerous advantages over alternative techniques such as light-microscopy methods to visualize the Cag-T4SS and will be appropriate to investigators interested in studying the regulation of this organelle10.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Modified brucella broth</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Peptone from casein (10 g/L)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>70172</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Peptic digest of animal tissue (10 g/L)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>70174</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yeast extract (2 g/L)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>92144</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dextrose (1 g/L)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>D9434</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium chloride (5 g/L)</td><td>Thermo Fisher</td><td>S271-10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cholesterol (250X) (4 ml/L)</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>12531018</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ferric chloride (100 or 250 uM)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>157740-100G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dipyridyl (200 uM)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>D216305-100G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Modified RPMI</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RPMI+HEPES (1X)</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>22400-121</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal bovine serum (100 ml/L)</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>10438-026</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Electron Microscopy Preparation</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde (2.0% aqueous)</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>15713</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gluteraldehyde (2.5% aqueous)</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>16220</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium cacodylate (0.05 M)</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>12300</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Osmium tetroxide (0.1% aqueous)</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>19150</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol (absolute)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>E7023</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Colloidal silver paint</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>12630</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SEM sample stubs</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>75220</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Coverslips</td><td>Thermo Fisher</td><td>08-774-383</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>IL-8 Secretion Evaluation</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Quantikine IL-8 ELISA kit</td><td>R&amp;amp;D Systems</td><td>D8000C</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

high resolution electron microscopy of the helicobacter pylori cag type iv secretion system pili produced in varying conditions of iron availability

Helicobacter pylori is a helical-shaped, gram negative bacterium that colonizes the human gastric niche of half of the human population1,2. H. pylori is the primary cause of gastric cancer, the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide3. One virulence factor that has been associated with increased risk of gastric disease is the Cag-pathogenicity island, a 40-kb region within the chromosome of H. pylori that encodes a type IV secretion system and the cognate effector molecule, CagA4,5. The Cag-T4SS is responsible for translocating CagA and peptidoglycan into host epithelial cells5,6. The activity of the Cag-T4SS results in numerous changes in host cell biology including upregulation of cytokine expression, activation of proinflammatory pathways, cytoskeletal remodeling, and induction of oncogenic cell-signaling networks5-8. The Cag-T4SS is a macromolecular machine comprised of sub-assembly components spanning the inner and outer membrane and extending outward from the cell into the extracellular space. The extracellular portion of the Cag-T4SS is referred to as the &#8220;pilus&#8221;5. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the Cag-T4SS pili are formed at the host-pathogen interface9,10. However, the environmental features that regulate the biogenesis of this important organelle remain largely obscure. Recently, we reported that conditions of low iron availability increased the Cag-T4SS activity and pilus biogenesis. Here we present an optimized protocol to grow H. pylori in varying conditions of iron availability prior to co-culture with human gastric epithelial cells. Further, we present the comprehensive protocol for visualization of the hyper-piliated phenotype exhibited in iron restricted conditions by high resolution scanning electron microscopy analyses.

本稿では、鉄利用能を変化させる条件はH.を調節する能力を有することが実証されているホスト病原体の界面でのピロリ菌 CAG-T4SS線毛生合成。 、H。単独の培地で培養した場合ピロリ菌は 3線毛/セルの平均を形成している。ときにH.ピロリ菌は、鉄で栽培されて枯渇細菌の増殖（ 図1）サブ阻害性である（合成キレート剤ジピリジルを使用）の条件は、細菌が作り出す数々のCAG-T4SS線毛（〜7線毛/セル）とき、人間の胃の細胞と共培養（ 図2）。栄養鉄の外因性源が存在する場合には逆に、CAG-T4SS線毛の形成が抑制される（FE試料中の1未満線毛/細胞、1未満線毛/ FE +ディップサンプル中の細胞）（ 図2）。宿主-病原体界面での線毛の定量化は、鉄制限、Hの状態であることを明らかにしピロリ菌は、CAG-T4SS線毛た（p &lt;0.000の2倍の増加を示す<html> 1）培地のみで増殖した細胞と比較して11％（p &lt;0.05）にパーセントpiliated細胞が増加した（ 図3）。興味深いことに、CAG-T4SSの活性は、ホストIL-8分泌によって測定されるように、鉄制限条件下で107パーセントを強化し、培地のみ（p = 0.03、およびpと比較して過剰鉄利用能の条件下で49％抑制される&lt; SEMデータをサポート0.001、それぞれ）の結果。しかし、線毛の寸法は鉄の可用性（ 図4）のすべての条件のうち一貫性を維持。また、鉄利用能がケージ変異体の表面上に線毛の生合成を変化させず、それは実際には、実証された構造であるという仮説を支持し、宿主細胞からのIL-8応答を誘導するこの同質遺伝子誘導体の能力を変更しない、 CAG-T4SSとされていない追加の無関係な表面特徴。 N &quot;SRC =&quot; /ファイル/ ftp_upload / 52122 / 52122fig1highres.jpg &quot;幅=&quot; 500 &quot;/&gt; 図1：鉄の可用性の様々な条件で決定された細菌の生存能力H.。ピロリ菌だけでは修正されたブルセラブロス（培地のみ）で培養した、または、100μMのFeCl 3（FE）、200100μMのジピリジル（DIP）、または200100μMのジピリジルプラス、250μMのFeCl 3（FE +ディップ）を補充した。細菌は、5％CO 2の存在下、37℃で2日間インキュベーション前に連続希釈し、細菌学的培地上にプレーティングした。コロニーを計数し、コロニー形成単位/ mLの（CFU / ml）を算出した。バーは、3回の独立した実験の平均値+/- SEMを示す。 DIP、FE、またはFE +ディップを用いた治療は大幅に細菌の生存能力は変更されません。 <img alt="図2" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52122/52122fig2highres.jpg" width="500" /> 図2：高RH.のesolution走査型電子顕微鏡分析ピロリ CAG-T4SS線毛。細菌は200μMのジピリジル、またはDを補った、100μMのFeCl 3、C）培地を補っA）培地のみ、B）培地中で増殖させた）、200μMのジピリジルプラス250μMのFeCl 3を添加した培地AGS人間との共培養の前に胃の細胞。矢印は、宿主 - 病原体の界面に形成されたCAG-T4SS線毛を示している。サンプルは、CAG-T4SS生合成を評価するために、高分解能走査型電子顕微鏡により分析した。過剰利用可能な栄養鉄の条件は、CAG-T4SS線毛の形成を抑制しつつ、低鉄利用の条件は、CAG-T4SS線毛形成の有病率を増加させる。 <img alt="図3" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52122/52122fig3highres.jpg" width="500" /> 図3：様々な中で培養線毛/セルおよびパーセントpiliated細胞の定量化鉄利用の条件。細菌は、単独（培地のみ）修正されたブルセラブロス中で増殖させた、または媒体は、100μMのFeCl 3（FE）、200100μMのジピリジル（DIP）、または200100μMのジピリジルプラス、250μMのFeCl 3（FE +ディップ）コ·前に補充した人間の胃上皮細胞と培養する。サンプルは、ImageJソフトウェアを使用して列挙された高分解能走査電子顕微鏡および線毛によって分析した。 A）は、培地単独と比較して細胞あたりの線毛の散布た（* p &lt;0.0001）、および独立した3から派生培養条件あたり60-112細胞由来の培地のみに比べpiliated細胞（* P &lt;0.05）のB）のバーグラフ描いパーセント生物学的な実験。 <img alt="図4" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52122/52122fig4highres.jpg" width="500" /> 図4：鉄の可用性の様々な条件で培養した細胞から測定線毛寸法。 BACTERIAコ·前に修正されたブルセラ単独のブロス（培地のみ）、または中、100μMのFeCl 3（FE）を補充し、200100μMのジピリジル（DIP）、または200100μMのジピリジルプラス、250μMのFeCl 3（FE +ディップ）で増殖させた人間の胃上皮細胞と培養する。試料は、高分解能走査型電子顕微鏡で分析し、線毛寸法はImageJソフトウェアを用いて測定した。 A）線毛幅は、すべての条件のうち13.1 +/- 2.4程度の平均値である。 B）線毛の長さは、すべての条件のうち75.8 +/- 16.0ナノメートルの平均である。線毛寸法の有意差は鉄利用の様々な条件で見られない。 補足図1：高分解能走査型電子顕微鏡での分析H.鉄の可用性の様々な条件でのピロリ菌ケージ変異体。細菌はFeCl 3を 、100μMで補充A）培地で増殖させた、B）培地D、200μMのジピリジル（補充したIP）またはC）、200μMのジピリジル（DIP）を添加した培地を加え、250μMのFeCl 3 AGSヒト胃細胞と共培養する前に。サンプルは、CAG-T4SS生合成を評価するために、高分解能走査型電子顕微鏡により分析した。低または高鉄の条件は図2に可視化された構造は、CAG-T4SS線毛であるという仮説を支持し、あらゆるCAG-独立の線毛生合成を調節しない。 補足図2：鉄の可用性の条件を変化させることで成長させた細菌に応答したホストのIL-8分泌のELISA分析。野生型（白棒）またはケージ変異体（灰色のバー）細菌は、100μMのFeCl 3（FE）、200100μMのジピリジル（DIP）、または200μMのジピリジルを補った修正されたブルセラ単独のブロス（培地のみ）、または培地中で増殖させたプラス250 uMのFeCl 3を （FE +ディップ）は、ヒトの胃上皮細胞との共培養の前に。増加したILの鉄制限の結果-8、CAG-T4SS活動に依存しているホストの応答。バーは、3つの別個の生物学的な実験から得られ、平均+/- SEMを示す。 （* P &lt;0.05、培地のみで増殖したPMSS1と比較して）。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about High Resolution Electron Microscopy of the Helicobacter pylori Cag Type IV Secretion System Pili Produced in Varying Conditions of Iron Availability at JoVE.c

High Resolution Electron Microscopy of the Helicobacter pylori Cag Type IV Secretion System Pili Produced in Varying Conditions of Iron Availability

Here we describe a method to visualize the oncogenic bacterial organelle known as the Cag Type IV Secretion System (Cag-T4SS). We find that the Cag-T4SS is differentially produced on the surface of H. pylori in response to varying conditions of iron availability.

の高分解能電子顕微鏡<em&gt;ヘリコバクター·ピロリ</em鉄の可用性の変化する条件で生産&gt; CAG IV型分泌系線毛

Helicobacter pylori is a helical-shaped, gram negative bacterium that colonizes the human gastric niche of half of the human population1,2.  H. pylori is ...

high-resolution-electron-microscopy-helicobacter-pylori-cag-type-iv

Universidad San Sebastian

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

High Resolution Electron Microscopy of the Helicobacter pylori Cag Type IV Secretion System Pili Produced in Varying Conditions of Iron Availability

15.0K ビュー.  Vanderbilt University School of Medicine. Here we describe a method to visualize the oncogenic bacterial organelle known as the Cag Type IV Secretion System (Cag-T4SS). We find that the Cag-T4SS is differentially produced on the surface of H. pylori in response to varying conditions of iron availability.

ビデオ: High Resolution Electron Microscopy of the Helicobacter pylori Cag Type IV Secretion System Pili Produced in Varying Conditions of Iron Availability

High-resolution Single Particle Analysis from Electron Cryo-microscopy Images Using SPHIRE

SPHIRE (SPARX for High-Resolution Electron Microscopy) is a novel open-source, user-friendly software suite for the semi-automated processing of single particle electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) data. The protocol presented here describes in detail how to obtain a near-atomic resolution structure starting from cryo-EM micrograph movies by guiding users through all steps of the single particle structure determination pipeline. These steps are controlled from the new SPHIRE graphical user interface and require minimum user intervention. Using this protocol, a 3.5 &#197; structure of TcdA1, a Tc toxin complex from Photorhabdus luminescens, was derived from only 9500 single particles. This streamlined approach will help novice users without extensive processing experience and a priori structural information, to obtain noise-free and unbiased atomic models of their purified macromolecular complexes in their native state.

This paper presents a protocol for processing cryo-EM images using the software suite SPHIRE. The present protocol can be applied for nearly all single particle EM projects that target near-atomic resolution.

SPHIREを用いた電子冷凍顕微鏡画像からの高分解能単一粒子解析

SPHIRE (SPARX for High-Resolution Electron Microscopy) is a novel open-source, user-friendly software suite for the semi-automated processing of single ...

生化学

Engineering Adherent Bacteria by Creating a Single Synthetic Curli Operon

The method described here consists in redesigning E. coli adherence properties by assembling the minimum number of curli genes under the control of a strong and metal-overinducible promoter, and in visualizing and quantifying the resulting gain of bacterial adherence. This method applies appropriate engineering principles of abstraction and standardization of synthetic biology, and results in the BBa_K540000 Biobrick (Best new Biobrick device, engineered, iGEM 2011).
The first step consists in the design of the synthetic operon devoted to curli overproduction in response to metal, and therefore in increasing the adherence abilities of the wild type strain. The original curli operon was modified in silico in order to optimize transcriptional and translational signals and escape the "natural" regulation of curli. This approach allowed to test with success our current understanding of curli production. Moreover, simplifying the curli regulation by switching the endogenous complex promoter (more than 10 transcriptional regulators identified) to a simple metal-regulated promoter makes adherence much easier to control.
The second step includes qualitative and quantitative assessment of adherence abilities by implementation of simple methods. These methods are applicable to a large range of adherent bacteria regardless of biological structures involved in biofilm formation. Adherence test in 24-well polystyrene plates provides a quick preliminary visualization of the bacterial biofilm after crystal violet staining. This qualitative test can be sharpened by the quantification of the percentage of adherence. Such a method is very simple but more accurate than only crystal violet staining as described previously 1 with both a good repeatability and reproducibility. Visualization of GFP-tagged bacteria on glass slides by fluorescence or laser confocal microscopy allows to strengthen the results obtained with the 24-well plate test by direct observation of the phenomenon.

The design of a synthetic operon encoding both the secretory apparatus and the structural monomers of curli fibers is described. Overproduction of these amyloids and adherent polymers allows a measurable gain of adherence of the E. coli chassis1. Easy ways to visualize and quantify adherence are explained.

単一の合成Curliオペロンを作成して付着細菌を工学

The  method described here consists in redesigning E. coli adherence properties by assembling the minimum number of  curli genes under the control of a ...

生物工学

Staphylococcus aureus Growth using Human Hemoglobin as an Iron Source

S. aureus is a pathogenic bacterium that requires iron to carry out vital metabolic functions and cause disease. The most abundant reservoir of iron inside the human host is heme, which is the cofactor of hemoglobin. To acquire iron from hemoglobin, S. aureus utilizes an elaborate system known as the iron-regulated surface determinant (Isd) system1. Components of the Isd system first bind host hemoglobin, then extract and import heme, and finally liberate iron from heme in the bacterial cytoplasm2,3. This pathway has been dissected through numerous in vitro studies4-9. Further, the contribution of the Isd system to infection has been repeatedly demonstrated in mouse models8,10-14. Establishing the contribution of the Isd system to hemoglobin-derived iron acquisition and growth has proven to be more challenging. Growth assays using hemoglobin as a sole iron source are complicated by the instability of commercially available hemoglobin, contaminating free iron in the growth medium, and toxicity associated with iron chelators. Here we present a method that overcomes these limitations. High quality hemoglobin is prepared from fresh blood and is stored in liquid nitrogen. Purified hemoglobin is supplemented into iron-deplete medium mimicking the iron-poor environment encountered by pathogens inside the vertebrate host. By starving S. aureus of free iron and supplementing with a minimally manipulated form of hemoglobin we induce growth in a manner that is entirely dependent on the ability to bind hemoglobin, extract heme, pass heme through the bacterial cell envelope and degrade heme in the cytoplasm. This assay will be useful for researchers seeking to elucidate the mechanisms of hemoglobin-/heme-derived iron acquisition in S. aureus and possibly other bacterial pathogens.

Staphylococcus aureus Growth using Human Hemoglobin as an Iron Source

Here we describe a growth assay for Staphylococcus aureus using hemoglobin as the sole source of available nutrient iron. This assay establishes the role of bacterial factors involved in hemoglobin-derived iron acquisition.

鉄源としてヒトヘモグロビンを用いた黄色ブドウ球菌の成長

S. aureus is a pathogenic bacterium that requires iron to  carry out vital metabolic functions and cause disease. The most abundant  reservoir of iron ...

免疫・感染学

Essential Metal Uptake in Gram-negative Bacteria: X-ray Fluorescence, Radioisotopes, and Cell Fractionation

We demonstrate a scalable method for the separation of the bacterial periplasm from the cytoplasm. This method is used to purify periplasmic protein for the purpose of biophysical characterization, and measure substrate transfer between periplasmic and cytoplasmic compartments. By carefully limiting the time that the periplasm is separated from the cytoplasm, the experimenter can extract the protein of interest and assay each compartment individually for substrate without carry-over contamination between compartments. The extracted protein from fractionation can then be further analyzed for three-dimensional structure determination or substrate-binding profiles. Alternatively, this method can be performed after incubation with a radiotracer to determine total percent uptake, as well as distribution of the tracer (and hence metal transport) across different bacterial compartments. Experimentation with a radiotracer can help differentiate between a physiological substrate and artefactual substrate, such as those caused by mismetallation.
X-ray fluorescence can be used to discover the presence or absence of metal incorporation in a sample, as well as measure changes that may occur in metal incorporation as a product of growth conditions, purification conditions, and/or crystallization conditions. X-ray fluorescence also provides a relative measure of abundance for each metal, which can be used to determine the best metal energy absorption peak to use for anomalous X-ray scattering data collection. Radiometal uptake can be used as a method to validate the physiological nature of a substrate detected by X-ray fluorescence, as well as support the discovery of novel substrates.

A protocol for the extraction of a periplasmic transition metal chaperone in the context of its native binding partners, and biophysical characterization of its substrate contents by X-ray fluorescence and radiometal uptake is presented.

グラム陰性の細菌で重要な金属吸収: 蛍光、放射性同位元素、およびセル分別

We demonstrate a scalable method for the separation of the bacterial periplasm from the cytoplasm. This method is used to purify periplasmic protein for ...

化学

Porphyromonas gingivalis as a Model Organism for Assessing Interaction of Anaerobic Bacteria with Host Cells

Anaerobic bacteria far outnumber aerobes in many human niches such as the gut, mouth, and vagina. Furthermore, anaerobic infections are common and frequently of indigenous origin. The ability of some anaerobic pathogens to invade human cells gives them adaptive measures to escape innate immunity as well as to modulate host cell behavior. However, ensuring that the anaerobic bacteria are live during experimental investigation of the events may pose challenges. Porphyromonas gingivalis, a Gram-negative anaerobe, is capable of invading a variety of eukaryotic non-phagocytic cells. This article outlines how to successfully culture and assess the ability of P. gingivalis to invade human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Two protocols were developed: one to measure bacteria that can successfully invade and survive within the host, and the other to visualize bacteria interacting with host cells. These techniques necessitate the use of an anaerobic chamber to supply P. gingivalis with an anaerobic environment for optimal growth.
The first protocol is based on the antibiotic protection assay, which is largely used to study the invasion of host cells by bacteria. However, the antibiotic protection assay is limited; only intracellular bacteria that are culturable following antibiotic treatment and host cell lysis are measured. To assess all bacteria interacting with host cells, both live and dead, we developed a protocol that uses fluorescent microscopy to examine host-pathogen interaction. Bacteria are fluorescently labeled with 2&#39;,7&#39;-Bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein acetoxymethyl ester (BCECF-AM) and used to infect eukaryotic cells under anaerobic conditions. Following fixing with paraformaldehyde and permeabilization with 0.2% Triton X-100, host cells are labeled with TRITC phalloidin and DAPI to label the cell cytoskeleton and nucleus, respectively. Multiple images taken at different focal points (Z-stack) are obtained for temporal-spatial visualization of bacteria. Methods used in this study can be applied to any cultivable anaerobe and any eukaryotic cell type.

Porphyromonas gingivalis as a Model Organism for Assessing Interaction of Anaerobic Bacteria with Host Cells

This article presents two protocols: one to measure anaerobic bacteria that can successfully invade and survive within the host, and the other to visualize anaerobic bacteria interacting with host cells. This study can be applied to any cultivable anaerobe and any eukaryotic cell type.

宿主細胞と嫌気性菌の相互作用を評価するためのモデル生物としてポルフィロモナス・ジンジバリス

Anaerobic bacteria far outnumber aerobes in many human niches such as the gut, mouth, and vagina. Furthermore, anaerobic infections are common and ...

Visualization of Twitching Motility and Characterization of the Role of the PilG in Xylella fastidiosa

Xylella fastidiosa is a Gram-negative non-flagellated bacterium that causes a number of economically important diseases of plants. The twitching motility provides X. fastidiosa a means for long-distance intra-plant movement and colonization, contributing toward pathogenicity in X. fastidiosa. The twitching motility of X. fastidiosa is operated by type IV pili. Type IV pili of Xylella fastidiosa are regulated by pilG, a chemotaxis regulator in Pil-Chp operon encoding proteins that are involved with signal transduction pathways. To elucidate the roles of pilG in the twitching motility of X. fastidiosa, a pilG-deficient mutant Xf&#916;pilG and its complementary strain Xf&#916;pilG-C containing native pilG were developed. A microfluidic chambers integrated with a time-lapse image recording system was used to observe twitching motility in Xf&#916;pilG, Xf&#916;pilG-C and its wild type strain. Using this recording system, it permits long-term spatial and temporal observations of aggregation, migration of individual cells and populations of bacteria via twitching motility. X. fastidiosa wild type and complementary Xf&#916;pilG-C strain showed typical twitching motility characteristics directly observed in the microfluidic flow chambers, whereas mutant Xf&#916;pliG exhibited the twitching deficient phenotype. This study demonstrates that pilG contributes to the twitching motility of X. fastidiosa. The microfluidic flow chamber is used as a means for observing twitching motility.

Visualization of Twitching Motility and Characterization of the Role of the PilG in Xylella fastidiosa

In this study, a nano-microfluidic flow chamber was employed to visualize and functionally characterize the twitching motility of Xylella fastidiosa, a bacterium that causes Pierce&#39;s disease in grapevine.

の役割の攣縮運動の可視化とキャラクタリゼーション<em&gt; PilG</em&gt;で<em&gt; Xylella fastidiosa</em

Xylella fastidiosa is a Gram-negative non-flagellated bacterium that causes a number of economically important diseases of plants. The twitching motility ...

Applying Live Cell Imaging and Cryo-Electron Tomography to Resolve Spatiotemporal Features of the Legionella pneumophila Dot/Icm Secretion System

The Dot/Icm secretion system of Legionella pneumophila is a complex type IV secretion system (T4SS) nanomachine that localizes at the bacterial pole and mediates the delivery of protein and DNA substrates to target cells, a process generally requiring direct cell-to-cell contact. We have recently solved the structure of the Dot/Icm apparatus by cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) and showed that it forms a cell envelope-spanning channel that connects to a cytoplasmic complex. Applying two complementary approaches that preserve the native structure of the specimen, fluorescent microscopy in living cells and cryo-ET, allows in situ visualization of proteins and assimilation of the stoichiometry and timing of production of each machine component relative to other Dot/Icm subunits. To investigate the requirements for polar positioning and to characterize dynamic features associated with T4SS machine biogenesis, we have fused a gene encoding superfolder green fluorescent protein to Dot/Icm ATPase genes at their native positions on the chromosome. The following method integrates quantitative fluorescence microscopy of living cells and cryo-ET to quantify polar localization, dynamics, and structure of these proteins in intact bacterial cells. Applying these approaches for studying the Legionella pneumophila T4SS is useful for characterizing the function of the Dot/Icm system and can be adapted to study a wide variety of bacterial pathogens that utilize the T4SS or other types of bacterial secretion complexes.

Applying Live Cell Imaging and Cryo-Electron Tomography to Resolve Spatiotemporal Features of the Legionella pneumophila Dot/Icm Secretion System

Imaging of bacterial cells is an emerging systems biology approach focused on defining static and dynamic processes that dictate the function of large macromolecular machines. Here, integration of quantitative live cell imaging and cryo-electron tomography is used to study Legionella pneumophila type IV secretion system architecture and functions.

レジオネラ肺球菌ドット/Icm分泌系の空間的特徴を解決するためのライブ細胞イメージングとクライオ電子断層撮影の適用

The Dot/Icm secretion system of Legionella pneumophila is a complex type IV secretion system (T4SS) nanomachine that localizes at the bacterial pole and ...

Metal-Limited Growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae for Characterization of Metal-Responsive Genes and Metal Acquisition from Host Ligands

Trace metals such as iron and zinc are vital nutrients known to play key roles in prokaryotic processes including gene regulation, catalysis, and protein structure. Metal sequestration by hosts often leads to metal limitation for the bacterium. This limitation induces bacterial gene expression whose protein products allow bacteria to overcome their metal-limited environment. Characterization of such genes is challenging. Bacteria must be grown in meticulously prepared media that allows sufficient access to nutritional metals to permit bacterial growth while maintaining a metal profile conducive to achieving expression of the aforementioned genes. As such, a delicate balance must be established for the concentrations of these metals. Growing a nutritionally fastidious organism such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which has evolved to survive only in the human host, adds an additional level of complexity. Here, we describe the preparation of a defined metal-limited medium sufficient to allow gonococcal growth and the desired gene expression. This method allows the investigator to chelate iron and zinc from undesired sources while supplementing the media with defined sources of iron or zinc, whose preparation is also described. Finally, we outline three experiments that utilize this media to help characterize the protein products of metal-regulated gonococcal genes.

Metal-Limited Growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae for Characterization of Metal-Responsive Genes and Metal Acquisition from Host Ligands

We describe here a method for growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in metal-restricted liquid medium to facilitate the expression of genes for metal uptake. We also outline downstream experiments to characterize the phenotype of gonococci grown in these conditions. These methods may be adapted to be suitable for characterization of metal-responsive genes in other bacteria.

ホストリガンドからの金属応答遺伝子の特性評価と金属獲得のためのナイセリア淋菌の金属有限成長

Trace metals such as iron and zinc are vital nutrients known to play key roles in prokaryotic processes including gene regulation, catalysis, and protein ...

T3SS Activity in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Under Iron Depletion & Anaerobic Stress

Quantifying Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Type III Secretion System Activity Following Iron Starvation and Anaerobic Growth

A key virulence mechanism for many Gram-negative pathogens is the type III secretion system (T3SS), a needle-like appendage that translocates cytotoxic or immunomodulatory effector proteins into host cells. The T3SS is a target for antimicrobial discovery campaigns since it is accessible extracellularly and largely absent from non-pathogenic bacteria. Recent studies demonstrated that the T3SS of Yersinia and Salmonella are regulated by factors responsive to iron and oxygen, which are important niche-specific signals encountered during mammalian infection. Described here is a method for iron starvation of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, with subsequent optional supplementation of inorganic iron. To assess the impact of oxygen availability, this iron starvation process is demonstrated under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Finally, incubating the cultures at the mammalian host temperature of 37 &#176;C induces T3SS expression and allows quantification of Yersinia T3SS activity by visualizing effector proteins released into the supernatant. The steps detailed here offer an advantage over the use of iron chelators in the absence of iron starvation, which is insufficient for inducing robust iron starvation, presumably due to efficient Yersinia iron uptake and scavenging systems. Likewise, acid-washing laboratory glassware is detailed to ensure the removal of residual iron, which is essential for inducing robust iron starvation. Additionally, using a chelating agent is described to remove residual iron from media, and culturing the bacteria for several generations in the absence of iron to deplete bacterial iron stores. By incorporating standard protocols of trichloroacetic acid-induced protein precipitation, SDS-PAGE, and silver staining, this procedure demonstrates accessible ways to measure T3SS activity. While this procedure is optimized for Y. pseudotuberculosis, it offers a framework for studies in pathogens with similar robust iron uptake systems. In the age of antibiotic resistance, these methods can be expanded to assess the efficacy of antimicrobial compounds targeting the T3SS under host-relevant conditions.

Bacteria colonize host tissues that vary in oxygen and iron bioavailability, yet most approaches to studying bacteria use aerated, rich media. This protocol describes culturing the human pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis under varying iron concentrations and oxygen tension, and quantifying activity of the Yersinia type III secretion system, which is an important virulence factor.

A key virulence mechanism for many Gram-negative pathogens is the type III secretion system (T3SS), a needle-like appendage that translocates cytotoxic or ...

Super-Resolution Imaging of Bacterial Secreted Proteins Using Genetic Code Expansion

Type three secretion systems (T3SSs) enable gram-negative bacteria to inject a battery of effector proteins directly into the cytosol of eukaryotic host cells. Upon entry, the injected effector proteins cooperatively modulate eukaryotic signaling pathways and reprogram cellular functions, enabling bacterial entry and survival. Monitoring and localizing these secreted effector proteins in the context of infections provides a footprint for defining the dynamic interface of host-pathogen interactions. However, labeling and imaging bacterial proteins in host cells without disrupting their structure/function is technically challenging. 
Constructing fluorescent fusion proteins does not resolve this problem, because the fusion proteins jam the secretory apparatus and thus are not secreted. To overcome these obstacles, we recently employed a method for site-specific fluorescent labeling of bacterial secreted effectors, as well as other difficult-to-label proteins, using genetic code expansion (GCE). This paper provides a complete step-by-step protocol to label Salmonella secreted effectors using GCE site-specifically, followed by directions for imaging the subcellular localization of secreted proteins in HeLa cells using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) 
Recent findings suggest that the incorporation of non-canonical amino acids (ncAAs) via GCE, followed by bio-orthogonal labeling with tetrazine-containing dyes, is a viable technique for selective labeling and visualization of bacterial secreted proteins and subsequent image analysis in the host. The goal of this article is to provide a straightforward and clear protocol that can be employed by investigators interested in conducting super-resolution imaging using GCE to study various biological processes in bacteria and viruses, as well as host-pathogen interactions.

This article provides a straightforward and clear protocol to label Salmonella secreted effectors using genetic code expansion (GCE) site-specifically and image the subcellular localization of secreted proteins in HeLa cells using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM)

遺伝暗号拡張を用いた細菌分泌タンパク質の超解像イメージング

Type three secretion systems (T3SSs) enable gram-negative bacteria to inject a battery of effector proteins directly into the cytosol of eukaryotic host ...

の高分解能電子顕微鏡

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