Name: forward genetics screens using macrophages to identify toxoplasma gondii genes important for resistance to ifn-γ-dependent cell autonomous immunity
Uploaded: 2015-03-12T15:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 11 min 21 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Forward Genetics Screens Using Macrophages to Identify Toxoplasma gondii Genes Important for Resistance to IFN-Î³-Dependent Cell Autonomous Immunity at JoVE

Special thanks to Dr. Peter Bradley for the antibody to detect the T. gondii mitochondria. The work was supported by National Institute of Health Grants AI072028 and AI107431 to D.G.M and a generous donation to New York Medical College for the study of tropical medicine.

The authors have no competing financial interests.

Die beschriebenen Protokoll stellt eine nicht voreingenommen Ansatz, der die Aktivierung von Maus-Knochenmark stammenden Makrophagen und zukunfts Genetik T. isolieren verwendet gondii-Mutanten mit Defekt in der Fähigkeit, die Aktivierung von infizierten Makrophagen zu überleben. Der Phänotyp der Mutanten nach Makrophagenaktivierung fällt in der Regel in eine von zwei Kategorien: 1) Die Parasiten scheinen intakt, aber nicht über den 1. Parasiten pro PV replizieren; 2) Die Parasiten erscheinen abgeb...

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) ist ein obligat intrazelluläre, Protozoen-Erreger. Es ist der Erreger der Toxoplasmose, ein Gesundheitsrisiko bei immungeschwächten Individuen. Es ist auch das Modellsystem für andere apicomplexan Krankheitserreger, die Menschen, einschließlich Cryptosporidium und Cyclospora infizieren. Toxoplasmose ist am häufigsten durch den Verzehr von Nahrung oder Wasser mit dem bradyzoite oder Oozysten Stadium des Parasiten verunreinigt erworben. Nach der Einnahme konvertieren diese Stufen auf die Tachyzoiten Stadium des Parasiten, die in Wirtszellen repliziert und verbreitet systemisch. T-Zellen, IFN-γ und, in geringerem Maße, Stickstoffmonoxid 1-4, sind wichtig für die Kontrolle der Infektion jedoch nicht zur Eliminierung der Erkrankung, als Anteil der Tachyzoiten umwandeln zum bradyzoite Stufe, die innerhalb Gewebezysten geschützt was zu einem langlebigen chronischen Infektion. In der Tat gibt es keine wirksame Therapie gegen die chronische Zyste sTage der Erkrankung. Schwere Toxoplasmose ist meist durch die Reaktivierung der persistierenden Infektion mit dem bradyzoite Stadium des Parasiten Konvertierung zurück in die schnell zu replizieren Tachyzoiten Phase charakteristisch für primäre und akute Infektion. Frühe Überleben angesichts der angeborenen Immunantwort ist wichtig, damit der Parasit, genügend Parasitenzahlen zu erreichen, sowie distalen Stellen zu erreichen, für die Niederlassung einer chronischen Infektion zu ermöglichen. T. gondii hat Strategien zur Wirtsabwehrmechanismen, die wahrscheinlich ihre Fähigkeit zu replizieren und Verbreitung der Infektion früh beitragen entgegenzuwirken entwickelt. Zuerst T. gondii bildet eine einzigartige PV bei Parasitenbefall weitgehend getrennt von den endozytischen und Exozytose-Prozesse der Wirtszelle im Vergleich zu anderen intrazellulären Pathogenen 5-9 ist. Auch, wie alle erfolgreichen intrazelluläre Erreger T. gondii modifiziert seine Wirtszelle, um einen permissiven Umgebung f erstellenoder Wachstum. Dies beinhaltet eine Anpassung Wirtszelle Genexpression durch Veränderung Wirtszelle Transkriptionsfaktoren einschließlich der wichtig für die Regulierung Zellaktivierung 10-15. ROP16 16-19 GRA15 20. GRA16 21 und GRA24 22 erwiesen sich alle als bei der Regulierung der Transkriptionsreaktion und Zellsignalkaskaden von Wirtszellen mit T. infiziert wichtig gondii. Jüngste Studien mit genetischen Kreuzungen zwischen Parasitenstämme mit unterschiedlichen Phänotypen sehr produktiv bei der Identifizierung von Genen, die Parasiten Parasiten Genotyp-abhängigen Eigenschaften einschließlich Umgehung der Immunität GTPasen (IRGs) 16,19,23-26 zugrunde liegen gewesen. In Mäusen sind Immunität GTPasen (IRGs) kritisch für die Steuerung der Typ II und III Genotypen des Parasiten während der sehr virulenten Typ I Genotypen Mechanismen entwickelt, um die murinen IRGs entziehen. Es ist aber auch klar, dass der Parasit hat Mechanismen entwickelt, um antimikrobielle Medien umgehenren neben den IRGs und dass einige dieser Mechanismen können für Parasiten Genotypen 27,28 konserviert werden. Zudem ist sehr wenig über den kritischen Mediatoren der Zell autonome Immunität gegen T. bekannt gondii während menschliche Toxoplasmose. Parasite Gene wichtig für die Resistenz gegen Vermittler von Zell autonome Immunität kann auch überlebenswichtig sein, während Tachyzoiten Umwandlung, die auch von Wirtsimmunreaktionen ausgelöst werden können, um bradyzoite. So kann beispielsweise Stickstoffmonoxid auf hohem Niveau Parasitenreplikation in infizierten Makrophagen unterdrücken, aber es kann auch dazu anregen Tachyzoiten zu Umrechnung in Zyste Produktion 30-32 bradyzoite. ToxoDB ist eine funktionelle Genomdatenbank für T. gondii, der als wichtige Ressource für das Feld in Bezug auf die Bereitstellung Sequenzinformation für die Parasitengenom und den Zugang zu veröffentlichten und nicht veröffentlichten genomischen Maßstab Daten einschließlich Community Anmerkungen Gen exp<html> ression und Proteomik-Daten 33. Ähnlich wie bei vielen Protozoen- Pathogene, der Großteil des Genoms besteht aus hypothetischen Gene ohne von Informationen aus Genhomologie Einblick in ihre möglichen Funktionen bereitzustellen. So ist nach vorn Genetik ein leistungsfähiges Werkzeug, um neue Parasiten Gene wichtig für Immunevasion, Zyste Umwandlung und andere Funktionen entscheidend für Parasiten Pathogenese als auch für die Konvertierung zwischen verschiedenen Entwicklungsstadien zu identifizieren. Eine weitere Stärke der Vorwärtsgenetik ist, dass es als ein relativ nicht-vorgespannten Ansatz verwendet, um den Parasit zu den Genen, die für spezifische Aufgaben in Pathogenese, einschließlich Immunumgehung und Zystenbildung sind abzufragen. Die jüngsten Verbesserungen in Next Generation Sequencing für Mutationsprofiling haben sie eine Methode der Wahl für die Identifizierung der verantwortlichen Parasiten Gene von vorn Genetik Studien unter Verwendung von chemischen und Insertionsmutagenese 34-37 hergestellt. ntent &quot;&gt; Es ist wichtig, um Schwachstellen in T. gondii, die ausgenutzt werden, um die Wirksamkeit der Zell autonomen Immunmechanismen gegen den Parasiten insbesondere solche, die auch gegen die resistenten Zyste Bühne aktiv sein können. Um dieses Ziel zu, ein in vitro-Mäuse zu verbessern identifizieren Makrophageninfektion und Aktivierungsmodell wurde entwickelt, um Mutationen in die Parasiten, insbesondere T. gondii Fitness nach Aktivierung der infizierten Makrophagen, aber nicht in naiven Makrophagen limitieren. Dieses Makrophagen Bildschirm verwendet, um eine Bibliothek von T. gondii Insertionsmutanten um abzufragen letztendlich identifizieren T. gondii wichtige Gene für die Resistenz gegen Stickoxid 27,28. Die Isolierung von einem Panel von T. gondii-Mutanten mit verminderter Widerstandsfähigkeit gegenüber der Aktivierung der infizierten Makrophagen, insbesondere eine ausgeprägte Empfindlichkeit gegenüber Stickstoffmonoxid, erwies sich die Nützlichkeit des Screening zur Identifizierung Parasiten Gene wichtig für WiderstandMediatoren der Zell autonome Immunität mit Ausnahme der für die murine IRGs 28 beschriebenen Resistenzmechanismen. Insertionsmutagenese hat Vorteile gegenüber chemischen Mutagenese im Hinblick auf die Erzeugung einer begrenzten Anzahl von zufälligen Mutationen in jeder Parasit Klons und theoretisch eine leichtere Identifizierung der Mutationsstelle. Die Identifizierung der Genom-Stelle des Plasmids Insertion in T. gondii Insertionsmutanten in der Praxis hat sich überraschend schwierig, in vielen Fällen 37. Einführen eines Plasmids in einem Gen ist auch geeignet, die Funktion eines Gens, das im Gegensatz zur chemischen Mutagenese, die typischerweise zu einzelnen Nucleotidänderungen stören. Die chemische Mutagenese mit entweder N-Ethyl-N-nitrosoharnstoff (ENU) oder Ethylmethansulfonat (EMS) zu einer erhöhten Fähigkeit, einen größeren Teil des Parasitengenoms zu analysieren bieten, im Vergleich zu Insertionsmutagenese, da sie mehrfache Punktmutationen erzeugt ( geschätzt bei 10 -100) pro Mutante 34, 38. Außerdem jüngsten Fortschritte in der gesamten Genoms Profilierung hat es möglich gemacht, um der nächsten Generation Sequenzierung verwenden, um die wahrscheinlichsten Kandidaten-Gene für die identifizierte Phänotyp eines mutierten Parasiten 34,38 verantwortlich sind. Unabhängig von der Mutagenese-Ansatz, Bestätigung der Rolle von dem Parasiten Gen der Resistenz gegen Makrophagenaktivierung erfordert letztendlich Gendeletion und Komplementation zu molekularer Koch-Postulate zu erfüllen. Die Fähigkeit, die Funktion eines Gens durch genetische Manipulation sowohl des Parasiten und dem Makrophagen zergliedern ist wichtig, da viele der über Vorwärts Genetik in T. identifizierten Gene gondii, wie auch andere Krankheitserreger, werden noch als hypothetische Gene mit wenig bis keine Sequenzhomologie zu anderen Proteinen mit bekannter Funktion aufweist. Die aktuelle Papier einen allgemeinen Ansatz, der verwendet werden kann, um zu ermitteln, ob die unterbrochene Gen in einer Mutante ist wichtig für den Widerstand gegen eine bekannte oder umreißtunbekannt Vermittler von Zell autonome Immunität. Die erste Analyse der Host antimikrobielle Faktoren wird durch die Auswertung der Überlebensrate von Wildtyp und Mutante Parasiten in Makrophagen, die von Wildtyp-Mäusen im Vergleich zu denen mit spezifischen Gendeletionen in induzierbaren Stickstoffmonoxid-Synthase (iNOS), gp-91 phox (NADPH-Oxidase) durchgeführt wird, und spezifische Immunität GTPasen (IRGs). Damit wird festgelegt, ob die identifizierten Parasiten Gene sind wichtig für die Resistenz gegen Stickstoffmonoxid, reaktive Sauerstoffzwischenprodukte oder Immunität GTPasen bzw. 28 oder wenn ein unbekannter Immunsystems beteiligt ist. Aktivierung der infizierten Makrophagen sowohl IFN-γ und LPS in der aktuellen Protokoll beschrieben, resultiert in erster Linie bei der Isolierung von Parasitengene wichtig für die Resistenz gegen Stickstoffoxid 28. Die Verwendung von pharmakologischen Mitteln, die Stickstoffmonoxid in Abwesenheit von Makrophagen-Aktivierung zu induzieren (Stickoxiddonoren) bestätigte, dass die Mehrheit der identifizierten Gene, die für Wieder warenWiderstand gegen Stickstoffmonoxid anstatt Stickoxid zusammen mit weiteren Mediatoren mit Makrophagenaktivierung 28 verbunden. Schritt eins und zwei beschreiben eine Vorwärtsgenetik Bildschirm entworfen, um Parasiten Mutanten mit einem Fitness-Defekt nach der Aktivierung von infizierten Knochenmark-Makrophagen in vitro zu isolieren. Schritt eins beschreibt eine Dosistitration Analyse empirisch bestimmen eine Dosis von IFN-γ und LPS für Makrophagenaktivierung, die Parasiten Replikation reduziert, aber nicht vollständig hemmen die Replikation von Wildtyp T. verwenden gondii Elternstamm, die für die Erstellung der Bibliothek des Parasiten Mutanten verwendet wird. Schritt zwei wird die Vorwärts genetischen Screening der Mutanten-Klone in Makrophagen in 96-Well-Platten. Schritt drei beschreibt einen Ansatz, um den Phänotyp jeder Mutante in dem Bildschirm der 96-Well-Platten identifiziert und zu bewerten, ob der Fehler in jeder Mutante wirkt das Überleben der Parasiten, die Replikation zu bestätigen,oder Zysten Produktion als Antwort auf die Makrophagenaktivierung. Schritt vier wird die Verwendung von Knochenmark-Makrophagen von Mäusen mit Deletionen in spezifischen antimikrobiellen Wege um die Immunmediatoren, auf die der Parasit Mutante spezifisch empfindlich identifizieren. Schritt fünf beschreibt einen Ansatz, um zu bestimmen, ob ein Parasit Mutante ist auch für in vivo Pathogenese beeinträchtigt, wie durch Zystenproduktion in den Gehirnen von infizierten Mäusen ausgewertet.

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forward genetics screens using macrophages to identify toxoplasma gondii genes important for resistance to ifn-&#947;-dependent cell autonomous immunity

Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, is an obligate intracellular protozoan pathogen. The parasite invades and replicates within virtually any warm blooded vertebrate cell type. During parasite invasion of a host cell, the parasite creates a parasitophorous vacuole (PV) that originates from the host cell membrane independent of phagocytosis within which the parasite replicates. While IFN-dependent-innate and cell mediated immunity is important for eventual control of infection, innate immune cells, including neutrophils, monocytes and dendritic cells, can also serve as vehicles for systemic dissemination of the parasite early in infection. An approach is described that utilizes the host innate immune response, in this case macrophages, in a forward genetic screen to identify parasite mutants with a fitness defect in infected macrophages following activation but normal invasion and replication in na&#239;ve macrophages. Thus, the screen isolates parasite mutants that have a specific defect in their ability to resist the effects of macrophage activation. The paper describes two broad phenotypes of mutant parasites following activation of infected macrophages: parasite stasis versus parasite degradation, often in amorphous vacuoles. The parasite mutants are then analyzed to identify the responsible parasite genes specifically important for resistance to induced mediators of cell autonomous immunity. The paper presents a general approach for the forward genetics screen that, in theory, can be modified to target parasite genes important for resistance to specific antimicrobial mediators. It also describes an approach to evaluate the specific macrophage antimicrobial mediators to which the parasite mutant is susceptible. Activation of infected macrophages can also promote parasite differentiation from the tachyzoite to bradyzoite stage that maintains chronic infection. Therefore, methodology is presented to evaluate the importance of the identified parasite gene to establishment of chronic infection.

Toxoplasma gondii repliziert frei in naiven Makrophagen und weist eine Verdopplungszeit von 6-12 h in Abhängigkeit von der Belastung des Parasiten. Abbildung 1 zeigt repräsentative Parasiten in naiven Vergleich aktiviert Knochenmark stammenden Makrophagen. Abbildung 2 zeigt die allgemeine Morphologie des Parasiten in HFF Wirtszellen, die nach 2, 4, 8, 16 und 32 Parasiten / PV. In der gegenwärtigen Protokoll wird der Parasit darf naiv Makrophagen eindringen und stellen Sie ei...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Forward Genetics Screens Using Macrophages to Identify Toxoplasma gondii Genes Important for Resistance to IFN-Î³-Dependent Cell Autonomous Immunity at JoVE

Forward Genetics Screens unter Verwendung von Makrophagen zur Identifizierung von Toxoplasma gondii-Genen, die für die Resistenz gegen IFN-γ-abhängige zellautonome Immunität wichtig sind | Immunologie und Infektion | Video

Forward Genetics Screens Using Macrophages to Identify Toxoplasma gondii Genes Important for Resistance to IFN-&#947;-Dependent Cell Autonomous Immunity

Forward genetics is a powerful approach to identify genes in intracellular pathogens important for resistance to cell autonomous immunity. The current approach uses innate immune cells, specifically macrophages, to identify novel Toxoplasma gondii genes important for immune evasion.

Zukunfts Genetics Screens Mit Makrophagen zu identifizieren<em&gt; Toxoplasma gondii</em&gt; Gene wichtig für die Resistenz gegenüber IFN-γ-abhängige Zell autonome Immunität

Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, is an obligate intracellular protozoan pathogen. The parasite invades and replicates within ...

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Forward Genetics Screens Using Macrophages to Identify Toxoplasma gondii Genes Important for Resistance to IFN-&#947;-Dependent Cell Autonomous Immunity

Unit 2

Population Genetics

Analyzing Gene Expression and Function

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11.0K Aufrufe.  New York Medical College. Forward genetics is a powerful approach to identify genes in intracellular pathogens important for resistance to cell autonomous immunity. The current approach uses innate immune cells, specifically macrophages, to identify novel Toxoplasma gondii genes important for immune evasion. 

Serie: Forward Genetics Screens Using Macrophages to Identify Toxoplasma gondii Genes Important for Resistance to IFN-γ-Dependent Cell Autonomous Immunity

Toxoplasma gondii Cyst Wall Formation in Activated Bone Marrow-derived Macrophages and Bradyzoite Conditions

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that can invade any nucleated cell of warm-blooded animals. During infection, T. gondii disseminates as a fast replicating form called the tachyzoite. Tachyzoites convert into a slow-growing encysted form called the bradyzoite by a signaling process that is not well characterized. Within animals, bradyzoite cysts are found in the central nervous system and muscle tissue and represent the chronic stage of infection. Conversion to bradyzoites can be simulated in tissue culture by CO2 starvation, using medium with high a pH, or the addition of interferon gamma (IFN&gamma;). Bradyzoites are characterized by the presence of a cyst wall, to which the lectin Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA) binds. Fluorescently labeled DBA is used to visualize the cyst wall in parasites grown in human foreskin fibroblasts (HFFs) that have been exposed to low CO2 and high pH medium. Similarly, parasites residing in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) display a cyst wall detectable by DBA after the BMMs are activated with IFN&gamma; and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). This protocol will demonstrate how to induce conversion of T. gondii to bradyzoites using a high pH growth medium with low CO2 and activation of BMMs. Host cells will be cultured on coverslips, infected with tachyzoites and either activated with addition of IFN&gamma; and LPS (BMMs) or exposed to a high pH growth medium (HFFs) for three days. Upon completion of infections, host cells will be fixed, permeabilized, and blocked. Cyst walls will be visualized using rhodamine DBA with fluorescence microscopy.

Toxoplasma gondii Cyst Wall Formation in Activated Bone Marrow-derived Macrophages and Bradyzoite Conditions

Toxoplasma gondii converts to a cyst form in response to environmental stresses, which can be mimicked in tissue culture models. This video demonstrates techniques to examine cyst wall formation by activating bone marrow-derived macrophages or changing growth medium pH in fibroblast cells.

Toxoplasma gondii Zystenwand Formation in Activated Knochenmark abgeleiteten Makrophagen und Bradyzoite AGB

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that can invade any nucleated cell of warm-blooded animals. During infection, T. gondii ...

Forschung

Immunologie und Infektion

Transnuclear Mice with Pre-defined T Cell Receptor Specificities Against Toxoplasma gondii Obtained Via SCNT

Lymphocytes, such as T cells, undergo genetic V(D)J recombination, to generate a receptor with a certain specificity1. Mice transgenic for a rearranged antigen-specific T cell receptor (TCR) have been an indispensable tool to study T cell development and function. However, such TCRs are usually isolated from the relevant T cells after long-term culture often following repeated antigen stimulation, which unavoidably selects for T cells with high affinity. Random genomic integration of the TCR &alpha;- and &beta;-chain and expression from non-endogenous promoters can lead to variations in expression level and kinetics.
Epigenetic reprogramming via somatic cell nuclear transfer provides a tool to generate embryonic stem cells and mice from any cell of interest. Consequently, when SCNT is applied to T cells of known specificity, these genetic V(D)J rearrangements are transferred to the SCNT-embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and the mice derived from them, while epigenetic marks are reset. We have demonstrated that T cells with pre-defined specificities against Toxoplasma gondii can be used to generate mouse models that express the specific TCR from their endogenous loci, without experimentally introduced genetic modification. The relative ease and speed with which such transnuclear models can be obtained holds promise for the construction of other disease models.

Transnuclear Mice with Pre-defined T Cell Receptor Specificities Against Toxoplasma gondii Obtained Via SCNT

We demonstrate here that epigenetic reprogramming via Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) can be used as a tool to generate mouse models with pre-defined T cell receptor (TCR) specificities. These transnuclear mice express the corresponding TCR from their endogenous locus under the control of the endogenous promoter.

Transnuclear Mäuse mit vordefinierten T-Zell-Rezeptor Spezifitäten gegen Toxoplasma gondii Via SCNT Erhalten

Lymphocytes, such as T cells, undergo genetic V(D)J recombination, to generate a receptor with a certain specificity1. Mice transgenic for a rearranged ...

QTL Mapping and CRISPR/Cas9 Editing to Identify a Drug Resistance Gene in Toxoplasma gondii

Scientific knowledge is intrinsically linked to available technologies and methods. This article will present two methods that allowed for the identification and verification of a drug resistance gene in the Apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, the method of Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) mapping using a Whole Genome Sequence (WGS) -based genetic map and the method of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 -based gene editing. The approach of QTL mapping allows one to test if there is a correlation between a genomic region(s) and a phenotype. Two datasets are required to run a QTL scan, a genetic map based on the progeny of a recombinant cross and a quantifiable phenotype assessed in each of the progeny of that cross. These datasets are then formatted to be compatible with R/qtl software that generates a QTL scan to identify significant loci correlated with the phenotype. Although this can greatly narrow the search window of possible candidates, QTLs span regions containing a number of genes from which the causal gene needs to be identified. Having WGS of the progeny was critical to identify the causal drug resistance mutation at the gene level. Once identified, the candidate mutation can be verified by genetic manipulation of drug sensitive parasites. The most facile and efficient method to genetically modify T. gondii is the CRISPR/Cas9 system. This system comprised of just 2 components both encoded on a single plasmid, a single guide RNA (gRNA) containing a 20 bp sequence complementary to the genomic target and the Cas9 endonuclease that generates a double-strand DNA break (DSB) at the target, repair of which allows for insertion or deletion of sequences around the break site. This article provides detailed protocols to use CRISPR/Cas9 based genome editing tools to verify the gene responsible for sinefungin resistance and to construct transgenic parasites.

QTL Mapping and CRISPR/Cas9 Editing to Identify a Drug Resistance Gene in Toxoplasma gondii

Details are presented on how QTL mapping with a whole genome sequence based genetic map can be used to identify a drug resistance gene in Toxoplasma gondii and how this can be verified with the CRISPR/Cas9 system that efficiently edits a genomic target, in this case the drug resistance gene.

QTL Mapping und CRISPR / Cas9 Bearbeitung zur Identifizierung eines Drug Resistance Gen in<em&gt; Toxoplasma gondii</em

Scientific knowledge is intrinsically linked to available technologies and methods. This article will present two methods that allowed for the ...

Genetik

A Genetic Screen to Isolate Toxoplasma gondii Host-cell Egress Mutants

The widespread, obligate intracellular, protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii causes opportunistic disease in immuno-compromised patients and causes birth defects upon congenital infection. The lytic replication cycle is characterized by three stages: 1. active invasion of a nucleated host cell; 2. replication inside the host cell; 3. active egress from the host cell. The mechanism of egress is increasingly being appreciated as a unique, highly regulated process, which is still poorly understood at the molecular level. The signaling pathways underlying egress have been characterized through the use of pharmacological agents acting on different aspects of the pathways1-5. As such, several independent triggers of egress have been identified which all converge on the release of intracellular Ca2+, a signal that is also critical for host cell invasion6-8. This insight informed a candidate gene approach which led to the identification of plant like calcium dependent protein kinase (CDPK) involved in egress9. In addition, several recent breakthroughs in understanding egress have been made using (chemical) genetic approaches10-12. To combine the wealth of pharmacological information with the increasing genetic accessibility of Toxoplasma we recently established a screen permitting the enrichment for parasite mutants with a defect in host cell egress13. Although chemical mutagenesis using N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) or ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) has been used for decades in the study of Toxoplasma biology11,14,15, only recently has genetic mapping of mutations underlying the phenotypes become routine16-18. Furthermore, by generating temperature-sensitive mutants, essential processes can be dissected and the underlying genes directly identified. These mutants behave as wild-type under the permissive temperature (35 &deg;C), but fail to proliferate at the restrictive temperature (40 &deg;C) as a result of the mutation in question. Here we illustrate a new phenotypic screening method to isolate mutants with a temperature-sensitive egress phenotype13. The challenge for egress screens is to separate egressed from non-egressed parasites, which is complicated by fast re-invasion and general stickiness of the parasites to host cells. A previously established egress screen was based on a cumbersome series of biotinylation steps to separate intracellular from extracellular parasites11. This method also did not generate conditional mutants resulting in weak phenotypes. The method described here overcomes the strong attachment of egressing parasites by including a glycan competitor, dextran sulfate (DS), that prevents parasites from sticking to the host cell19. Moreover, extracellular parasites are specifically killed off by pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), which leaves intracellular parasites unharmed20. Therefore, with a new phenotypic screen to specifically isolate parasite mutants with defects in induced egress, the power of genetics can now be fully deployed to unravel the molecular mechanisms underlying host cell egress.

A Genetic Screen to Isolate Toxoplasma gondii Host-cell Egress Mutants

Forward genetics is a powerful method to unravel the molecular level of how Toxoplasma egresses from its host cell. Protocols are provided to chemically mutagenize parasites, enrich for mutants with defects in induced egress, and validate the phenotype of cloned mutants.

Ein genetischer Screen zu isolieren Toxoplasma gondii Host-Zelle Egress Mutanten

The widespread, obligate intracellular, protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii causes opportunistic disease in immuno-compromised patients and causes birth ...

A Parasite Rescue and Transformation Assay for Antileishmanial Screening Against Intracellular Leishmania donovani Amastigotes in THP1 Human Acute Monocytic Leukemia Cell Line

Leishmaniasis is one of the world's most neglected diseases, largely affecting the poorest of the poor, mainly in developing countries. Over 350 million people are considered at risk of contracting leishmaniasis, and approximately 2 million new cases occur yearly1. Leishmania donovani is the causative agent for visceral leishmaniasis (VL), the most fatal form of the disease. The choice of drugs available to treat leishmaniasis is limited 2;current treatments provide limited efficacy and many are toxic at therapeutic doses. In addition, most of the first line treatment drugs have already lost their utility due to increasing multiple drug resistance 3. The current pipeline of anti-leishmanial drugs is also severely depleted. Sustained efforts are needed to enrich a new anti-leishmanial drug discovery pipeline, and this endeavor relies on the availability of suitable in vitro screening models.
In vitro promastigotes 4 and axenic amastigotes assays5 are primarily used for anti-leishmanial drug screening however, may not be appropriate due to significant cellular, physiological, biochemical and molecular differences in comparison to intracellular amastigotes. Assays with macrophage-amastigotes models are considered closest to the pathophysiological conditions of leishmaniasis, and are therefore the most appropriate for in vitro screening. Differentiated, non-dividing human acute monocytic leukemia cells (THP1) (make an attractive) alternative to isolated primary macrophages and can be used for assaying anti-leishmanial activity of different compounds against intracellular amastigotes.
Here, we present a parasite-rescue and transformation assay with differentiated THP1 cells infected in vitro with Leishmania donovani for screening pure compounds and natural products extracts and determining the efficacy against the intracellular Leishmania amastigotes. The assay involves the following steps: (1) differentiation of THP1 cells to non-dividing macrophages, (2) infection of macrophages with L. donovani metacyclic promastigotes, (3) treatment of infected cells with test drugs, (4) controlled lysis of infected macrophages, (5) release/rescue of amastigotes and (6) transformation of live amastigotes to promastigotes. The assay was optimized using detergent treatment for controlled lysis of Leishmania-infected THP1 cells to achieve almost complete rescue of viable intracellular amastigotes with minimal effect on their ability to transform to promastigotes. Different macrophage:promastigotes ratios were tested to achieve maximum infection. Quantification of the infection was performed through transformation of live, rescued Leishmania amastigotes to promastigotes and evaluation of their growth by an alamarBlue fluorometric assay in 96-well microplates. This assay is comparable to the currently-used microscopic, transgenic reporter gene and digital-image analysis assays. This assay is robust and measures only the live intracellular amastigotes compared to reporter gene and image analysis assays, which may not differentiate between live and dead amastigotes. Also, the assay has been validated with a current panel of anti-leishmanial drugs and has been successfully applied to large-scale screening of pure compounds and a library of natural products fractions (Tekwani et al. unpublished).

A Parasite Rescue and Transformation Assay for Antileishmanial Screening Against Intracellular Leishmania donovani Amastigotes in THP1 Human Acute Monocytic Leukemia Cell Line

A parasite-rescue and transformation assay with THP1 cells infected in vitro with Leishmania donovani has been optimized for anti-leishmanial drug screening. The assay involves differentiation of THP1 cells, infection with promastigotes, treatment with test drugs, controlled lysis of the infected macrophages, rescue of amastigotes, transformation to promastigotes and monitoring promastigote growth and proliferation with a fluorometric assay.

A Parasite Rescue and Transformation Assay auf leishmanientötende Screening gegen intrazelluläre<em&gt; Leishmania donovani</em&gt; Amastigoten in THP1 Menschliche Akute Monozytenleukämie Cell Line

Leishmaniasis is  one of the world's most neglected diseases, largely affecting the  poorest of the poor, mainly in developing countries. Over 350 million ...

Genetic Manipulation in &Delta;ku80 Strains for Functional Genomic Analysis of Toxoplasma gondii

Targeted genetic manipulation using homologous recombination is the method of choice for functional genomic analysis to obtain a detailed view of gene function and phenotype(s). The development of mutant strains with targeted gene deletions, targeted mutations, complemented gene function, and/or tagged genes provides powerful strategies to address gene function, particularly if these genetic manipulations can be efficiently targeted to the gene locus of interest using integration mediated by double cross over homologous recombination.
Due to very high rates of nonhomologous recombination, functional genomic analysis of Toxoplasma gondii has been previously limited by the absence of efficient methods for targeting gene deletions and gene replacements to specific genetic loci. Recently, we abolished the major pathway of nonhomologous recombination in type I and type II strains of T. gondii by deleting the gene encoding the KU80 protein1,2. The &Delta;ku80 strains behave normally during tachyzoite (acute) and bradyzoite (chronic) stages in vitro and in vivo and exhibit essentially a 100% frequency of homologous recombination. The &Delta;ku80 strains make functional genomic studies feasible on the single gene as well as on the genome scale1-4.
Here, we report methods for using type I and type II &Delta;ku80&Delta;hxgprt strains to advance gene targeting approaches in T. gondii. We outline efficient methods for generating gene deletions, gene replacements, and tagged genes by targeted insertion or deletion of the hypoxanthine-xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HXGPRT) selectable marker. The described gene targeting protocol can be used in a variety of ways in &Delta;ku80 strains to advance functional analysis of the parasite genome and to develop single strains that carry multiple targeted genetic manipulations. The application of this genetic method and subsequent phenotypic assays will reveal fundamental and unique aspects of the biology of T. gondii and related significant human pathogens that cause malaria (Plasmodium sp.) and cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium).

Here we report a method for using type I and type II &Delta;ku80 strains of Toxoplasma gondii to efficiently generate targeted gene deletions and gene replacements for functional genomic analysis.

Genetische Manipulation in<em&gt; Δku80</em&gt; Die Stämme für Funktionelle Genomanalyse<em&gt; Toxoplasma gondii</em

Targeted genetic manipulation using homologous recombination is the method of choice for functional genomic analysis to obtain a detailed view of gene ...

Using RNA-interference to Investigate the Innate Immune Response in Mouse Macrophages

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells. When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the pathogen, produce various cytokines and chemokines to recruit and stimulate other immune cells, and present antigens to stimulate the adaptive immune response. Thus, being able to efficiently manipulate macrophages with techniques such as RNA-interference (RNAi) is critical to our ability to investigate this important innate immune cell. However, macrophages can be technically challenging to transfect and can exhibit inefficient RNAi-induced gene knockdown. In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect two mouse macrophage cell lines (RAW264.7 and J774A.1) with siRNA using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System and describe procedures to maximize the effect of siRNA on gene knockdown. Moreover, the described methods are adapted to work in 96-well format, allowing for medium and high-throughput studies. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, we describe experiments that utilize RNAi to inhibit genes that regulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine production.

In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect murine macrophage cell lines with siRNAs using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System, stimulate the macrophages with lipopolysaccharide, and monitor the effects on inflammatory cytokine production.

Mit RNA-Interferenz, um die angeborene Immunantwort in Makrophagen der Maus Untersuchen

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells.  When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the ...

Functional Characterization of Regulatory Macrophages That Inhibit Graft-reactive Immunity

Macrophage accumulation in transplanted organs has long been recognized as a feature of allograft rejection1. Immunogenic monocytes infiltrate the allograft early after transplantation, mount a graft reactive response against the transplanted organ, and initiate organ rejection2. Recent data suggest that suppressive macrophages facilitate successful long-term transplantation3 and are required for the induction of transplantation tolerance4. This suggests a multidimensional concept of macrophage ontogeny, activation, and function, which demands a new roadmap for the isolation and analysis of macrophage function5. Due to the plasticity of macrophages, it is necessary to provide a methodology to isolate and characterize macrophages, depending on the tissue environment, and to define their functions according to different scenarios. Here, we describe a protocol for immune characterization of graft-infiltrating macrophages and the methods we used to functionally evaluate their capacity to inhibit CD8+ T proliferation and to promote CD4+Foxp3+ Treg expansion in vitro.

Macrophages are plastic cells of the hematopoietic system that have a crucial role in protective immunity and homeostasis. In this report, we describe optimized in vitro techniques to phenotypically and functionally characterize graft-infiltrating regulatory macrophages that accumulate in the transplanted organ under tolerogenic conditions.

Funktionelle Charakterisierung von regulatorischen Makrophagen, die eine pfropfreaktive Immunität hemmen

Macrophage accumulation in transplanted organs has long been recognized as a feature of allograft rejection1. Immunogenic monocytes infiltrate the ...

Screening Bioactive Nanoparticles in Phagocytic Immune Cells for Inhibitors of Toll-like Receptor Signaling

Pharmacological regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) responses holds great promise in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases. However, there have been limited compounds available so far to attenuate TLR signaling and there have been no clinically approved TLR inhibitors (except the anti-malarial drug hydroxychloroquine) in clinical use. In light of rapid advances in nanotechnology, manipulation of immune responsiveness using nano-devices may provide a new strategy to treat these diseases. Herein, we present a high throughput screening method for quickly identifying novel bioactive nanoparticles that inhibit TLR signaling in phagocytic immune cells. This screening platform is built on THP-1 cell-based reporter cells with colorimetric and luciferase assays. The reporter cells are engineered from the human THP-1 monocytic cell line by stable integration of two inducible reporter constructs. One expresses a secreted embryonic alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) gene under the control of a promoter inducible by the transcription factors NF-&#954;B and AP-1, and the other expresses a secreted luciferase reporter gene under the control of promoters inducible by interferon regulatory factors (IRFs).Upon TLR stimulation, the reporter cells activate transcription factors and subsequently produce SEAP and/or luciferase, which can be detected using their corresponding substrate reagents. Using a library of peptide-gold nanoparticle (GNP) hybrids established in our previous studies as an example, we identified one peptide-GNP hybrid that could effectively inhibit the two arms of TLR4 signaling cascade triggered by its prototypical ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The findings were validated by standard biochemical techniques including immunoblotting. Further analysis established that this lead hybrid had a broad inhibitory spectrum, acting on multiple TLR pathways, including TLR2, 3, 4, and 5. This experimental approach allows a rapid assessment of whether a nanoparticle (or other therapeutic compounds) can modulate specific TLR signaling in phagocytic immune cells.

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling plays an important role in the pathophysiology of many human inflammatory diseases, and regulating TLR responses by bioactive nanoparticles is anticipated to be beneficial in many inflammatory conditions. THP-1 cell-based reporter cells provide a versatile and robust screening platform for identifying novel inhibitors of TLR signaling.

Screening bioaktiver Nanopartikel in phagozytischen Immunzellen für Inhibitoren der Toll-like Receptor Signaling

Pharmacological regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) responses holds great promise in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases. However, there have ...

Medizin

Determination of Chemical Inhibitor Efficiency against Intracellular Toxoplasma Gondii Growth Using a Luciferase-Based Growth Assay

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan pathogen that widely affects the human population. The current antibiotics used for treating clinical toxoplasmosis are limited. In addition, they exhibit adverse side effects in certain groups of people. Therefore, discovery of novel therapeutics for clinical toxoplasmosis is imperative. The first step of novel antibiotic development is to identify chemical compounds showing high efficacy in inhibition of parasite growth using a high throughput screening strategy. As an obligate intracellular pathogen, Toxoplasma can only replicate within host cells, which prohibits the use of optical absorbance measurements as a quick indicator of growth. Presented here is a detailed protocol for a luciferase-based growth assay. As an example, this method is used to calculate the doubling time of wild-type Toxoplasma parasites and measure the efficacy of morpholinurea-leucyl-homophenyl-vinyl sulfone phenyl (LHVS, a cysteine protease-targeting compound) regarding inhibition of parasite intracellular growth. Also described, is a CRISPR-Cas9-based gene deletion protocol in Toxoplasma using 50 bp homologous regions for homology-dependent recombination (HDR). By quantifying the inhibition efficacies of LHVS in wild-type and TgCPL (Toxoplasma cathepsin L-like protease)-deficient parasites, it is shown that LHVS inhibits wild-type parasite growth more efficiently than &#916;cpl growth, suggesting that TgCPL is a target that LHVS binds to in Toxoplasma. The high sensitivity and easy operation of this luciferase-based growth assay make it suitable for monitoring Toxoplasma proliferation and evaluating drug efficacy in a high throughput manner.

Determination of Chemical Inhibitor Efficiency against Intracellular Toxoplasma Gondii Growth Using a Luciferase-Based Growth Assay

Presented here is a protocol to evaluate the inhibition efficacy of chemical compounds against in vitro intracellular growth of Toxoplasma gondii using a luciferase-based growth assay. The technique is used to confirm inhibition specificity by genetic deletion of the corresponding target gene. The inhibition of LHVS against TgCPL protease is evaluated as an example.

Bestimmung der chemischen Inhibitor-Effizienz gegen intrazelluläre toxoplasma Gondii Wachstum mit einem Luziferase-basierten Wachstumstest

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan pathogen that widely affects the human population. The current antibiotics used for treating clinical toxoplasmosis are ...

Zukunfts Genetics Screens Mit Makrophagen zu identifizieren

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