The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Ten Cate Advanced Materials in the form of free material supply to the work described in this paper.

1. Specimen Cutting and Preparation for Ultrasonic Welding
<ol>
	<li>Cut rectangular samples measuring 25.4 mm x 101.6 mm from a larger thermoplastic composite laminate using a cutting technique that prevents delamination of the edges of the samples (e.g., diamond-saw or water-jet cutting). 
	Note: The dimensions of the samples are based on ASTM D 1002 standard.
	<ol>
		<li>Since strength of the welded joints depends on the fiber orientation on the surfaces to be welded10, take care to cut all the samples in the same orientation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After cutting, dry samples in an oven as per the manufacturer&#39;s recommendations in case the thermoplastic resin tends to absorb moisture (e.g., 6 hr at 135 &#176;C for six-layer carbon fiber reinforced polyetherimide, CF/PEI, samples).</li>
	<li>Cut flat energy directors made out of neat thermoplastic film (same resin as the matrix in the composite) to size (approximately 26 mm x 26 mm) with a thickness of at least 0.25 mm. If necessary, dry the energy director following manufacturer&#39;s recommendations (e.g., 1 hr at 135 &#176;C for PEI energy director).</li>
	<li>Before welding, inspect specimens one by one for delaminated corners and discard if necessary. Clean them using a degreaser and a cotton cloth. Clean the flat energy directors following the same procedure.</li>
</ol>
2. Ultrasonic Welding of Single Lap Shear Coupons
Note: A micro-processor controlled ultrasonic welder able to weld at constant amplitude is used in this step. The welder outputs process data, such as dissipated power and displacement of the sonotrode versus time to data acquisition software in a computer. A custom-built jig designed and manufactured to accurately position and clamp single lap shear samples during ultrasonic welding is used in this step (see Figure 1).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53592/53592fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Ultrasonic welder and custom-built welding setup used in this study. 1: sonotrode, 2: sliding platform, 3: clamp for the upper specimen (attached to 2), and 4: clamp for the lower specimen (Reprinted from reference 4 with permission from Elsevier.) <a href="https://www-jove-com.bdigitaluss.remotexs.co/files/ftp_upload/53592/53592fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol>
	<li>Fill out a logbook sheet before each welding experiment.
	<ol>
		<li>Take note of the following parameters: RT and humidity, welding setup reference, sonotrode type, sample number and materials, width and thickness of top and bottom samples, and thickness of the energy director.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Turn on the ultrasonic welder and computer. Start the data acquisition software and open a new session.</li>
	<li>If not already in place, change the sonotrode to a cylindrical sonotrode with a diameter of 40 mm so that its bottom surface completely covers the welding area. 
	Note: A different shape of sonotrode can be used, but its bottom surface should not be smaller than the welding area.</li>
	<li>Position and fixate specimens and energy director into the welding jig (see Figure 1).
	<ol>
		<li>Attach a flat energy director to the bottom specimen with adhesive tape so that it covers a slightly larger area than the area to be welded (12.7 mm x 25.4 mm).</li>
		<li>Place the bottom sample into the jig and clamp it by tightening the top screw.</li>
		<li>Tape the other end of the energy director to the base of the setup so that it stays in place during the process.</li>
		<li>Place the upper sample into the clamp, align it and tighten the top screw.</li>
		<li>Position the clamp for the top sample into the sliding platform and tighten both screws.</li>
		<li>Before proceeding further, tighten all four screws once more.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the optimum duration of the vibration phase based on the displacement of the sonotrode to achieve the highest weld strength, as described in steps 2.5.1 to 2.5.8. 
	Note: An optimum duration of the vibration phase is determined for each desired combination of welding force and vibration amplitude.
	<ol>
		<li>Set the ultrasonic welder to differential displacement-control mode.</li>
		<li>Input welding force and vibration amplitude into the ultrasonic welder (for example, 300 N and 86.2 &#956;m). 
		Note: For this ultrasonic welder, 86.2 &#956;m corresponds to the peak-to-peak vibration amplitude. In the machine settings, it is expressed as half this value, 43.1 &#956;m.</li>
		<li>Input the sonotrode displacement, or travel, at the end of the vibration phase as a value equal to the initial thickness of the energy director (for example, 0.25 mm).</li>
		<li>Input solidification force and time into the ultrasonic welder (for example, 1,000 N and 4,000 msec).</li>
		<li>When ready, put on soundproof headphones and start the ultrasonic welding process.</li>
		<li>After the completion of the process, take note of the following output parameters: welding distance, maximum power, vibration time and energy. Remove the coupon from the welding setup and write its identification number on both ends with a paint marker.</li>
		<li>Export the welding data (power and displacement of the sonotrode) to a spreadsheet and plot the power and displacement versus time curves during the vibration phase of the process. 
		Note: The displacement curve should plot the downward displacement of the sonotrode relative to its position at the onset of the vibration phase.</li>
		<li>Identify the displacement in the middle of the power plateau (stage 4) as shown on Figure 2 (in this case, 0.10 mm). 
		Note: This particular displacement value is the optimum travel that controls the duration of the vibration phase and will be used in every subsequent weld for the same welding force and amplitude.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/53592/53592fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Power (black) and displacement (grey) curves for the ultrasonic welding process indicating optimum travel value. The vibration phase of the ultrasonic welding can be divided in 5 stages. Optimum travel value is located within stage 4. Study case: carbon fiber reinforced polyetherimide -PEI substrates, 0.25 mm-thick flat PEI energy director, 300 N welding force, 86.2 &#181;m vibration amplitude, 0.25 mm travel. (Reprinted from reference 4 with permission from Elsevier.) <a href="https://www-jove-com.bdigitaluss.remotexs.co/files/ftp_upload/53592/53592fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="6">
	<li>Weld coupons at the optimum travel value for the given welding force and amplitude combination.
	<ol>
		<li>Repeat steps 2.1 to 2.5.6 for each weld. In step 2.5.3, use the optimum travel determined in step 2.5.8 for the corresponding welding force and amplitude combination. 
		Note: All LSS tests are carried out following ASTM D 1002 on a universal testing machine with a crosshead speed of 1.3 mm/min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Single Lap Shear Strength (LSS) Testing of Welded Coupons
<ol>
	<li>Measure and take note of the width of the overlap for each welded coupon.</li>
	<li>Turn on the universal testing machine and open the testing procedure for LSS on the computer.</li>
	<li>In the testing interface, enter the sample number and dimensions of the overlap. Set the force to 0 and the grip-to-grip separation to its initial position (for example, 60 mm).</li>
	<li>Position the sample in the grips of the testing machine as shown on Figure 3.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/53592/53592fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Schematic view of the clamping in the Zwick/Roell 250 kN universal testing machine (not to scale). The offset displacement between the top and lower grips allows aligning the load direction with the center weld line to minimize bending during the lap shear strength test. <a href="https://www-jove-com.bdigitaluss.remotexs.co/files/ftp_upload/53592/53592fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="5">
	<li>Start the testing procedure from the computer by clicking the &#34;Start&#34; button.</li>
	<li>After the sample breaks, remove it from the grips and secure both parts together with tape.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 3.3 to 3.6 for all other samples.</li>
	<li>When the tests are completed, export the data to a spreadsheet and calculate the average LSS value, according to the procedure described in the standard, for each welding force and amplitude combination.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Yousefpour, A., Hojjati, M., Immarigeon, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fusion+bonding/welding+of+thermoplastic+composites.">Fusion bonding/welding of thermoplastic composites.</a> J Thermoplast Compos. 17, 303-341 (2004).</li><li>Villegas, I. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+monitoring+of+ultrasonic+welding+of+thermoplastic+composites+through+power+and+displacement+data.">In situ monitoring of ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites through power and displacement data.</a> J Thermoplast Compos. 28 (1), 66-85 (2015).</li><li>Benatar, A., Gutowski, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasonic+welding+of+PEEK+Graphite+APC-2+composites.">Ultrasonic welding of PEEK Graphite APC-2 composites.</a> Polym Eng Sci. 29 (23), 1705-1721 (1989).</li><li>Villegas, I. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strength+development+versus+process+data+in+ultrasonic+welding+of+thermoplastic+composites+with+flat+energy+directors+and+its+application+to+the+definition+of+optimum+processing+parameters.">Strength development versus process data in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites with flat energy directors and its application to the definition of optimum processing parameters.</a> Compos Part A-Appl S. 65, 27-37 (2014).</li><li>Lu, H. M., Benatar, A., He, F. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequential+ultrasonic+welding+of+PEEK/graphite+composite+plates.">Sequential ultrasonic welding of PEEK/graphite composite plates.</a> Proceedings of the ANTEC'91 Conference. , 2523-2526 (1991).</li><li>Potente, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasonic+welding+-+principles+&amp;+theory.">Ultrasonic welding - principles &amp; theory.</a> Mater Design. 5, 228-234 (1984).</li><li>Stavrov, D., Bersee, H. E. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resistance+welding+of+thermoplastic+composites+-+an+overview.">Resistance welding of thermoplastic composites - an overview.</a> Compos Part A-Appl S. 36, 39-54 (2005).</li><li>Villegas, I. F., Valle-Grande, B., Bersee, H. E. N., Benedictus, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+evaluation+between+flat+and+traditional+energy+directors+for+ultrasonic+welding+of+CF/PPS+thermoplastic+composites.">A comparative evaluation between flat and traditional energy directors for ultrasonic welding of CF/PPS thermoplastic composites.</a> Compos Interface. , (2015).</li><li>Levy, A., Le Corre, S., Villegas, I. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modelling+the+heating+phenomena+in+ultrasonic+welding+of+thermoplastic+composites+with+flat+energy+directors.">Modelling the heating phenomena in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites with flat energy directors.</a> J Mater Process Tech. , 1361-1371 (2014).</li><li>Shi, H., Villegas, I. F., Bersee, H. E. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strength+and+failure+modes+in+resistance+welded+thermoplastic+composite+joints:+effect+of+fibre-matrix+adhesion+and+fibre+orientation.">Strength and failure modes in resistance welded thermoplastic composite joints: effect of fibre-matrix adhesion and fibre orientation.</a> Compos Part A-Appl S. 55, 1-10 (2013).</li><li>Villegas, I. F., Bersee, H. E. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasonic+welding+of+advanced+thermoplastic+composites.+An+investigation+on+energy-directing+surfaces.">Ultrasonic welding of advanced thermoplastic composites. An investigation on energy-directing surfaces.</a> Adv Polym Tech. 29 (2), 113-121 (2010).</li><li>Harras, B. K., Cole, C., Vu-Khanh, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimization+of+the+ultrasonic+welding+of+PEEK-carbon+composites.">Optimization of the ultrasonic welding of PEEK-carbon composites.</a> J Reinf Plast Comp. 15 (2), 174-182 (1996).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interest.

The results presented in the previous section indicate the appropriateness of the straightforward method proposed in this paper for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composite single lap coupons for the purpose of mechanical testing. The following paragraphs discuss how the results validate the three main pillars of the method, i.e., use of flat loose energy directors, use of process feedback to define optimum duration of the vibration and use of displacement control, as well as the applicability and limitatio...

Thermoplastic composites (TPC) have the ability to be welded, which contributes to their cost-effective manufacturing. Welding requires local heating under pressure to soften or melt the thermoplastic resin of the joining surfaces and to allow for intimate contact and subsequent inter-diffusion of thermoplastic polymer chains across the welding interface. Once molecular inter-diffusion is achieved, cooling down under pressure consolidates the welded joint. Several welding techniques are applicable to thermoplastic composites which differ mainly in the source of heat1, however, the main &#34;adhesion&#34; mechanism, i.e., molecular entanglement, remains unchanged. Ultrasonic welding offers very short welding times (in the order of a few seconds), easy automation and it is virtually independent of the type of reinforcement in the thermoplastic composite substrates. Moreover, it offers the possibility for in situ monitoring2,3, which can be used for in line quality assurance or for fast definition of processing windows4. Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites is mostly a spot welding process, however successful welding of longer seams through sequential ultrasonic welding has been reported in literature5. As opposed to resistance or induction welding, ultrasonic welding has not been industrially applied for structural joints between thermoplastic composite parts so far. Nevertheless, significant effort is currently being devoted to further development of structural ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites for aircraft applications.
In ultrasonic welding, the parts to be joined are subjected to a combination of static force and high-frequency low-amplitude mechanical vibrations transverse to the welding interface, which results in heat generation through surface and viscoelastic heating. Preferential heating at the welding interface is promoted through the use of resin protrusions on the surfaces to be welded which undergo higher cyclic strain, and thus higher viscoelastic heating, than the substrates6. Force and vibration are exerted onto the parts to be welded through a sonotrode connected to a press and to an ultrasonic train consisting of piezo electric converter and booster. Depending on the distance between the point where the sonotrode contacts the part to be joined and the welding interface, a distinction can be made between near-field and far-field ultrasonic welding. Near-field welding (less than 6 mm between sonotrode and welding interface) is applicable to a wider range of materials whilst the applicability of far-field welding to a specific thermoplastic material is highly dependent on the ability of the material to conduct sound waves6.
The ultrasonic welding process can be divided into three main phases. Firstly, a force build-up phase, during which the sonotrode gradually increases the force on the parts to be welded until a certain trigger force is reached. No vibration is applied during this phase. Secondly, a vibration phase, which starts once the trigger force is reached. In this phase the sonotrode vibrates at the prescribed amplitude for a certain amount of time generating the heat needed for the welding process. Microprocessor controlled ultrasonic welders provide several options to control the duration of the vibration phase, among them time (i.e., direct control), displacement or energy (indirect control). The force applied during this phase, i.e., welding force, can be kept constant and equal to the trigger force or can be gradually varied during application of the vibration. Thirdly, a solidification phase, during which the welded parts are allowed to cool down under a certain solidification force for a certain amount of time. No vibration is applied during this last stage.
Welding force, vibration amplitude, vibration frequency and duration of the vibration phase (either directly or indirectly controlled through energy or displacement) are the welding parameters that control heat generation. Force, amplitude and duration are user-defined parameters, while frequency is fixed for each ultrasonic welder. Solidification force and solidification time, also welding parameters, do not intervene in the heating process but affect the consolidation and, together with the rest of parameters, the final quality of the welded joints.
This paper presents a novel straightforward method for near-field ultrasonic welding of individual TPC coupons in a single lap configuration for subsequent mechanical, single lap shear (LSS), testing following ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) D 1002 standard. Mechanical testing of the welded coupons allows determining the apparent lap shear strength of the joints, which is one of the properties most commonly used to quantify the strength of thermoplastic composite welded joints7. The welding method described in this paper is based on three main pillars. Firstly, loose flat energy directors are used for preferential heat generation at the joining interface8,9 during the welding process. Secondly, the process data provided by the ultrasonic welder is used to rapidly define the optimum duration of the vibration phase for a specific force/amplitude combination 2,4. Thirdly, the duration of the vibration phase is indirectly controlled through the displacement of the sonotrode in order to ensure consistent quality of the welded joints4. This welding method offers the following main novelties and advantages with regards to state-of-the-art welding procedures for thermoplastic composites: (a) simplified sample preparation enabled by the use of loose flat energy directors instead of traditional moulded energy directors3, and (b) fast and cost-efficient definition of processing parameters based on in-situ process monitoring as opposed to common trial and error approaches. Although the method described in this paper is geared towards obtaining a very specific and simple welding geometry it can serve as a basis to define a procedure for the welding of actual parts. A main difference in that case results from constrained flow of the energy director as opposed to unrestricted flow at the four edges of the overlap in single lap coupons.

<table><tbody><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Material/Reagent&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cetex carbon fiber / polyetherimide (CF/PEI) 5 harness satin prepreg</td><td>TenCate Advanced Composites (www.tencate.com)</td><td>Contact vendor</td><td>Material used in this study for the specimens.</td></tr><tr><td>PFQD solvent degreaser</td><td>PT Technologies Europe (now Socomore - www.socomore.com)</td><td>Contact vendor</td><td>Solvent degreaser for cleaning the specimens and energy directors.</td></tr><tr><td>Cotton cloths</td><td></td><td></td><td>For general cleaning purposes. No specific vendor was used.</td></tr><tr><td>0.25 mm PEI film</td><td>TenCate Advanced Composites (www.tencate.com)</td><td>Contact vendor</td><td>Thin film used as energy director.</td></tr><tr><td>Adhesive tape</td><td>Airtech Advanced Materials Group (www.airtechintl.com)</td><td>1&quot; x 72 yds MFG # 327402 Contact vendor for catalog number</td><td>Used to attach energy director to bottom sample for ultrasonic welding.</td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Name&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Company&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Catalog Number&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Comments&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Equipment&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>V&amp;ouml;tsch oven</td><td>V&amp;ouml;tsch Industrietechnik (www.voetsch-ovens.com)</td><td>VTU 60/60 - Contact vendor for specific catalog number</td><td>Oven used to dry PEI film (energy directors) and PEI specimens before welding.</td></tr><tr><td>Rinco Dynamic 3000 ultrasonic welder</td><td>Aeson BV (www.aeson.nl/en/)</td><td>Contact vendor</td><td>20 kHz ultrasonic welding machine used for the welding experiments. Several sonotrode sizes available. Contact vendor for details. ACUCapture software included.</td></tr><tr><td>Zwick/Roell universal testing machine</td><td>Zwick (www.zwick.com)</td><td>Z250 - Contact vendor for specific catalog number</td><td>Universal testing machine with maximum load of 250 kN used for single lap shear strength measurements.</td></tr></tbody></table>

ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composite coupons for mechanical characterization of welded joints through single lap shear testing

This paper presents a novel straightforward method for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic-composite coupons in optimum processing conditions. The ultrasonic welding process described in this paper is based on three main pillars. Firstly, flat energy directors are used for preferential heat generation at the joining interface during the welding process. A flat energy director is a neat thermoplastic resin film that is placed between the parts to be joined prior to the welding process and heats up preferentially owing to its lower compressive stiffness relative to the composite substrates. Consequently, flat energy directors provide a simple solution that does not require molding of resin protrusions on the surfaces of the composite substrates, as opposed to ultrasonic welding of unreinforced plastics. Secondly, the process data provided by the ultrasonic welder is used to rapidly define the optimum welding parameters for any thermoplastic composite material combination. Thirdly, displacement control is used in the welding process to ensure consistent quality of the welded joints. According to this method, thermoplastic-composite flat coupons are individually welded in a single lap configuration. Mechanical testing of the welded coupons allows determining the apparent lap shear strength of the joints, which is one of the properties most commonly used to quantify the strength of thermoplastic composite welded joints.

Carbon fiber reinforced polyetherimide (CF/PEI) samples were welded following the method described in this paper. The samples were obtained from a composite laminate made out of five-harness satin fabric CF/PEI, with (0/90)3S stacking sequence and 1.92 mm nominal thickness. Samples were cut from this laminate so that the main apparent orientation of the fibers was parallel to their longest side. Flat PEI energy directors with 0.25 mm thickness were used. Both the composite samp...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composite Coupons for Mechanical Characterization of Welded Joints through Single Lap Shear Testing at JoVE.com

Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composite Coupons for Mechanical Characterization of Welded Joints through Single Lap Shear Testing

A straightforward procedure for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composite coupons for basic mechanical testing is described. Key characteristics of this ultrasonic welding process are the use of flat energy directors for simplified process preparation and the use of process data for the fast definition of optimum processing conditions.

This paper presents a novel straightforward method for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic-composite coupons in optimum processing conditions. The ...

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11.5K Views.  Delft University of Technology. A straightforward procedure for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composite coupons for basic mechanical testing is described. Key characteristics of this ultrasonic welding process are the use of flat energy directors for simplified process preparation and the use of process data for the fast definition of optimum processing conditions.

Video: Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composite Coupons for Mechanical Characterization of Welded Joints through Single Lap Shear Testing

Experiments on Ultrasonic Lubrication Using a Piezoelectrically-assisted Tribometer and Optical Profilometer

Friction and wear are detrimental to engineered systems. Ultrasonic lubrication is achieved when the interface between two sliding surfaces is vibrated at a frequency above the acoustic range (20 kHz). As a solid-state technology, ultrasonic lubrication can be used where conventional lubricants are unfeasible or undesirable. Further, ultrasonic lubrication allows for electrical modulation of the effective friction coefficient between two sliding surfaces. This property enables adaptive systems that modify their frictional state and associated dynamic response as the operating conditions change. Surface wear can also be reduced through ultrasonic lubrication. We developed a protocol to investigate the dependence of friction force reduction and wear reduction on the linear sliding velocity between ultrasonically lubricated surfaces. A pin-on-disc tribometer was built which differs from commercial units in that a piezoelectric stack is used to vibrate the pin at 22 kHz normal to the rotating disc surface. Friction and wear metrics including effective friction force, volume loss, and surface roughness are measured without and with ultrasonic vibrations at a constant pressure of 1 to 4 MPa and three different sliding velocities: 20.3, 40.6, and 87 mm/sec. An optical profilometer is utilized to characterize the wear surfaces. The effective friction force is reduced by 62% at 20.3 mm/sec. Consistently with existing theories for ultrasonic lubrication, the percent reduction in friction force diminishes with increasing speed, down to 29% friction force reduction at 87 mm/sec. Wear reduction remains essentially constant (49%) at the three speeds considered.

We present a protocol for using a piezoelectrically-assisted tribometer and optical profilometer to investigate the dependence of ultrasonic wear and friction reduction on linear velocity, contact pressure, and surface properties.

Friction and wear are detrimental to engineered systems. Ultrasonic lubrication is achieved when the interface between two sliding surfaces is vibrated at ...

Testing of Nanoparticle Release from a Composite Containing Nanomaterial Using a Chamber System

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products containing nanomaterials is also increasing. Evaluating the nanomaterial release from products containing nanomaterials is a crucial step in assessing the safety of these products, and has resulted in several international efforts to develop consistent and reliable technologies for standardizing the evaluation of nanomaterial release. In this study, the release of nanomaterials from products containing nanomaterials is evaluated using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, optical particle counter, and sampling ports to collect filter samples for electron microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system is tested using an abrasor and disc-type nanocomposite material specimens to determine whether the nanomaterial release is repeatable and consistent within an acceptable range. The test results indicate that the total number of particles in each test is within 20% from the average after several trials. The release trends are similar and they show very good repeatability. Therefore, the proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing of products containing nanomaterials.

Nanoparticle release is tested using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, an optical particle counter and sampling ports to collect filter samples for microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing with a repeatable and consistent data range.

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products ...

Challenges in Rheological Characterization of Highly Concentrated Suspensions &#8212; A Case Study for Screen-printing Silver Pastes

A comprehensive rheological characterization of highly concentrated suspensions or pastes is mandatory for a targeted product development meeting the manifold requirements during processing and application of such complex fluids. In this investigation, measuring protocols for a conclusive assessment of different process relevant rheological parameters have been evaluated. This includes the determination of yield stress, viscosity, wall slip velocity, structural recovery after large deformation and elongation at break as well as tensile force during filament stretching.
The importance of concomitant video recordings during parallel-plate rotational rheometry for a significant determination of rheological quantities is demonstrated. The deformation profile and flow field at the sample edge can be determined using appropriate markers. Thus, measurement parameter settings and plate roughness values can be identified for which yield stress and viscosity measurements are possible. Slip velocity can be measured directly and measuring conditions at which plug flow, shear banding or sample spillover occur can be identified clearly. 
Video recordings further confirm that the change in shear moduli observed during three stage oscillatory shear tests with small deformation amplitude in stage I and III but large oscillation amplitude in stage II can be directly attributed to structural break down and recovery. For the pastes investigated here, the degree of irreversible, shear-induced structural change increases with increasing deformation amplitude in stage II until a saturation is reached at deformations corresponding to the crossover of G' and G'', but the irreversible damage is independent of the duration of large amplitude shear. 
A capillary breakup elongational rheometer and a tensile tester have been used to characterize deformation and breakup behavior of highly filled pastes in uniaxial elongation. Significant differences were observed in all experiments described above for two commercial screen-printing silver pastes used for front side metallization of Si-solar cells.

A protocol for a robust and application relevant rheological characterization of highly concentrated suspensions is presented. Silver pastes used for screen-printing application in solar cell production are employed as model systems.

A comprehensive rheological characterization of highly concentrated suspensions or pastes is mandatory for a targeted product development meeting the ...

A Novel Biaxial Testing Apparatus for the Determination of Forming Limit under Hot Stamping Conditions

The hot stamping and cold die quenching process is increasingly used to form complex shaped structural components of sheet metals. Conventional experimental approaches, such as out-of-plane and in-plane tests, are not applicable to the determination of forming limits when heating and rapid cooling processes are introduced prior to forming for tests conducted under hot stamping conditions. A novel in-plane biaxial testing system was designed and used for the determination of forming limits of sheet metals at various strain paths, temperatures, and strain rates after heating and cooling processes in a resistance heating uniaxial testing machine. The core part of the biaxial testing system is a biaxial apparatus, which transfers a uniaxial force provided by the uniaxial testing machine to a biaxial force. One type of cruciform specimen was designed and verified for the formability test of aluminum alloy 6082 using the proposed biaxial testing system. The digital image correlation (DIC) system with a high-speed camera was used for taking strain measurements of a specimen during a deformation. The aim of proposing this biaxial testing system is to enable the forming limits of an alloy to be determined at various temperatures and strain rates under hot stamping conditions.

This protocol proposes a novel biaxial testing system used on a resistance heating uniaxial tensile test machine in order to determine the forming limit diagram (FLD) of sheet metals under hot stamping conditions.

The hot stamping and cold die quenching process is increasingly used to form complex shaped structural components of sheet metals. Conventional ...

Ultrasonic Fatigue Testing in the Tension-Compression Mode

Ultrasonic fatigue testing is one of a few methods which allow investigating fatigue properties in the ultra-high cycle region. The method is based on exposing the specimen to longitudinal vibrations on its resonance frequency close to 20 kHz. With use of this method, it is possible to significantly decrease the time required for the test, when compared to conventional testing devices usually working at frequencies under 200 Hz. It is also used to simulate loading of material during operation in high speed conditions, such as those experienced by components of jet engines or car turbo pumps. It is necessary to operate only in the high and ultra-high cycle region, due to the possibility of extremely high deformation rates, which can have a significant influence on the test results. Specimen shape and dimensions have to be carefully selected and calculated to fulfill the resonance condition of the ultrasonic system; thus, it is not possible to test the full components or specimens of arbitrary shape. Before each test, it is necessary to harmonize the specimen with the frequency of the ultrasonic system to compensate for deviations of the real shape from the ideal one. It is not possible to run a test until a total fracture of the specimen, since the test is automatically terminated after initiation and propagation of the crack to a certain length, when the stiffness of the system changes enough to shift the system out of the resonance frequency. This manuscript describes the process of evaluation of materials' fatigue properties at high-frequency ultrasonic fatigue loading with use of mechanical resonance at a frequency close to 20 kHz. The protocol includes a detailed description of all steps required for a correct test, including specimen design, stress calculation, harmonizing with the resonance frequency, performing the test, and final static fracture.

A protocol for ultrasonic fatigue testing in the high and ultra-high cycle region in axial tension-compression loading mode.

Ultrasonic fatigue testing is one of a few methods which allow investigating fatigue properties in the ultra-high cycle region. The method is based on ...

Generating Lap Joints Via Friction Stir Spot Welding on DP780 Steel

Friction stir spot welding (FSSW), a derivative of friction stir welding (FSW), is a solid-state welding technique that was developed in 1991. An industry application was found in the automotive industry in 2003 for the aluminum alloy that was used in the rear doors of automobiles. Friction stir spot welding is mostly used in Al alloys to create lap joints. The benefits of friction stir spot welding include a nearly 80% melting temperature that lowers the thermal deformation welds without splashing compared to resistance spot welding. Friction stir spot welding includes 3 steps: plunging, stirring, and retraction. In the present study, other materials including high strength steel are also used in the friction stir welding method to create joints. DP780, whose traditional welding process involves the use of resistance spot welding, is one of several high strength steel materials used in the automotive industry. In this paper, DP780 was used for friction stir spot welding, and its microstructure and microhardness were measured. The microstructure data showed that there was a fusion zone with fine grain and a heat effect zone with island martensite. The microhardness results indicated that the center zone exhibited a greater degree of hardness compared with the base metal. All data indicated that the friction stir spot welding used in dual phase steel 780 can create a good lap joint. In the future, friction stir spot welding can be used in high-strength steel welding applied in industrial manufacturing processes.

Here, we present a friction stir spot welding (FSSW) protocol on dual phase 780 steel. A tool pin with high-speed rotation generates heat from friction to soften the material, and then, the pin plunges into 2 sheet joints to create the lap joint.

Friction stir spot welding (FSSW), a derivative of friction stir welding (FSW), is a solid-state welding technique that was developed in 1991. An industry ...

Cutting Procedures, Tensile Testing, and Ageing of Flexible Unidirectional Composite Laminates

Many body armor designs incorporate unidirectional (UD) laminates. UD laminates are constructed of thin (&#60;0.05 mm) layers of high-performance yarns, where the yarns in each layer are oriented parallel to each other and held in place using binder resins and thin polymer films. The armor is constructed by stacking the unidirectional layers in different orientations. To date, only very preliminary work has been performed to characterize the ageing of the binder resins used in unidirectional laminates and the effects on their performance. For example, during the development of the conditioning protocol used in the National Institute of Justice Standard-0101.06, UD laminates showed visual signs of delamination and reductions in V50, which is the velocity at which half of the projectiles are expected to perforate the armor, after ageing. A better understanding of the material property changes in UD laminates is necessary to comprehend the long-term performance of armors constructed from these materials. There are no current standards recommended for mechanically interrogating unidirectional (UD) laminate materials. This study explores methods and best practices for accurately testing the mechanical properties of these materials and proposes a new test methodology for these materials. Best practices for ageing these materials are also described.

The goal of the study was to develop protocols to prepare consistent specimens for accurate mechanical testing of high-strength aramid or ultra-high-molar-mass polyethylene-based flexible unidirectional composite laminate materials and to describe protocols for performing artificial ageing on these materials.

Many body armor designs incorporate unidirectional (UD) laminates. UD laminates are constructed of thin (&#60;0.05 mm) layers of high-performance yarns, ...

Determination of the Mechanical Properties of Flexible Connectors for Use in Insulated Concrete Wall Panels

This document contains recommendations for performing a non-standard, double-shear test suitable for both continuous and discrete insulated concrete sandwich wall panels (ICSWPs). Such a standardized test does not exist, but several iterations of this and similar tests have been performed in the literature to varying degrees of success. Further, the tests in the literature are rarely-if ever-described in detail or discussed at length with respect to the testing, data analysis, or safety procedures. A test specimen configuration is recommended herein, and variations are discussed. Important mechanical properties are identified from the load versus displacement data, and their extraction is detailed. The use of test data for design, such as for determining the stiffness of the connectors, is briefly demonstrated to show how ICSWP deflection and cracking behavior may be calculated. The strength behavior of panels may be determined using the full load versus displacement curve or only the maximum connector strength. Shortcomings and unknowns are acknowledged, and significant future work is delineated.

We propose a testing protocol that can be combined with widely available analytical methods to assess the mechanical properties of shear connectors for use in the design of insulated concrete wall panels to predict full-scale insulated panel behavior.

This document contains recommendations for performing a non-standard, double-shear test suitable for both continuous and discrete insulated concrete ...

Mechanoluminescent Visualization of Crack Propagation for Joint Evaluation

In this study, methods for the mechanoluminescent (ML) visualization of crack propagation and mechanical behavior to evaluate adhesive joints are demonstrated and explained. The first step involved sample preparation; an air spray was used to apply ML paint to the surface of the adhesive joint specimens. The performance of the ML sensor was described to examine the measurement conditions. The results of ML sensing during a double cantilever beam (DCB) test and a lap-shear (LS) test are demonstrated as these are the most frequently and widely used methods for evaluating adhesives. Originally, it was difficult to directly quantify the crack tip and strain/stress distribution and concentration because the crack tip was too small, and the effects of the strain could not be observed. The mechanoluminescence, crack propagation, and mechanical behavior during mechanical testing can be visualized via the ML pattern during the adhesive evaluation. This allows for the recognition of the precise position of the crack tips and other mechanical behaviors related to structural failure.

In this study, a protocol is presented that describes the use of mechanoluminescent (ML) visualization for monitoring crack propagation and mechanical behavior during adhesive joint evaluation testing.

In this study, methods for the mechanoluminescent (ML) visualization of crack propagation and mechanical behavior to evaluate adhesive joints are ...

Fabrication and Mechanical Property Assessment of Fiber Composite Laminates

Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Glass Fiber Reinforcement Polymer Composite Laminates Obtained by Different Fabrication Processes

The traditional wet hand lay-up process (WL) has been widely applied in the manufacturing of fiber composite laminates. However, due insufficiency in the forming pressure, the mass fraction of fiber is reduced and lots of air bubbles are trapped inside, resulting in low-quality laminates (low stiffness and strength). The wet hand lay-up/vacuum bag (WLVB) process for the fabrication of composite laminates is based on the traditional wet hand lay-up process, using a vacuum bag to remove air bubbles and provide pressure, and then carrying out the heating and curing process. 
Compared with the traditional hand lay-up process, laminates manufactured by the WLVB process show superior mechanical properties, including better strength and stiffness, higher fiber volume fraction, and lower void volume fraction, which are all benefits for composite laminates. This process is completely manual, and it is greatly influenced by the skills of the preparation personnel. Therefore, the products are prone to defects such as voids and uneven thickness, leading to unstable qualities and mechanical properties of the laminate. Hence, it is necessary to finely describe the WLVB process, finely control steps, and quantify material ratios, in order to ensure the mechanical properties of laminates. 
This paper describes the meticulous process of the WLVB process for preparing woven plain patterned glass fiber reinforcement composite laminates (GFRPs). The fiber volume content of laminates was calculated using the formula method, and the calculated results showed that the fiber volume content of WL laminates was 42.04%, while that of WLVB laminates was 57.82%, increasing by 15.78%. The mechanical properties of the laminates were characterized using tensile and impact tests. The experimental results revealed that with the WLVB process, the strength and modulus of the laminates were enhanced by 17.4% and 16.35%, respectively, and the specific absorbed energy was increased by 19.48%.

Author Spotlight: Enhancing Fiber Composite Laminate Quality with the Wet Hand Lay-Up/Vacuum Bag Process 

This paper describes a fabrication process for fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite laminates obtained using the wet hand lay-up/vacuum bag method.

The traditional wet hand lay-up process (WL) has been widely applied in the manufacturing of fiber composite laminates. However, due insufficiency in the ...