This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82273669, 82241086, 42207488), the Taishan Scholars Program of Shandong Province (No. tsqn202211121), and the Innovation and Technology Program for the Excellent Youth Scholars of Higher Education of Shandong Province (2022KJ295).

The study received approval from the Medical Ethics Committee of the Institute of Occupational Health and Poison Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (NIOHP201604), with written informed consent obtained from all subjects prior to the study and biological sample collection. For this study, carbon black packers who had been working in a carbon black factory for more than 1 year and were exposed to carbon black aerosols were selected. Waterworks workers in a waterworks factory with no significant occupational exposure to harmful factors were recruited from the local area as a control population to establish the study. The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected for the study population: Inclusion criteria for carbon black packers included direct contact with carbon black during most shifts and a minimum of one year&#39;s work in the carbon black exposure area. Waterworks workers were included if they had no occupational exposure to carbon black or other pollutants in their work environment. Exclusion criteria encompassed workers with chronic diseases such as cancer, those who had undergone X-ray exposure in the past three months, individuals with a history of pulmonary tuberculosis, pulmonary surgery, viral myocarditis, congenital heart disease, recent fever, or inflammation, and workers who had taken antibiotics recently. The reagents and the equipment used in the study are listed in the Table of Materials.
1. Sputum preservation
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the fixative solution following the steps below:
	<ol>
		<li>Melt 2% polyethylene glycol (PEG1500) in a water bath. Take 20 mL of melted PEG1500 in a centrifuge tube. Add 20 mL of 50% ethanol to the centrifuge tube and shake the mixture thoroughly to create the mother liquor.</li>
		<li>Gradually pour 40 mL of the mother liquor into 960 mL of 50% ethanol. Shake the solution well to form the Saccomanno fixation solution. Store the solution in a cool, dark place.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Add 20-30 mL of the prepared fixative solution to a centrifuge tube containing approximately 2 mL of sputum. Mix the contents thoroughly. 
	NOTE: Ensure the total volume does not exceed 40 mL.</li>
	<li>Seal the centrifuge tube with a sealing film. Store it in a cool, dark place. Transport the tube to the laboratory for further processing when ready. 
	NOTE: Always melt PEG1500 in a water bath and use as per the prescribed dosage.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of cell suspension in sputum
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the digestive solution by dissolving 0.1 g of dithiothreitol in 100&#160;mL of saline as per the actual dosage. Store the prepared solution at 4 &#176;C for up to 48 h.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the tube containing the sputum at 1,998 x g for 30 min at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant. Add an equal volume of sputum digest to the precipitate. Vortex and shake the mixture thoroughly.
	<ol>
		<li>Place the tube in a 37 &#176;C water bath until complete liquefaction (10-15 min). 
		NOTE: Continuously shake the tube during the liquefaction process.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Filter the liquefied mixture with a 70 &#181;m filter membrane.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the filtered solution at 500 x g for 7 min at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant, retaining the cell precipitate.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell precipitate in Duchenne phosphate buffer. Centrifuge the resuspended solution at 500 x g for 7 min at 4 &#176;C to obtain a pure cell precipitate.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of cell smear
<ol>
	<li>Add 200-600 &#181;L of phosphate buffer to the cell sediment. Mix the contents thoroughly; adjust the buffer volume based on cell counting results (aim for &#62;1.0 &#215; 105 cells).</li>
	<li>Take 20 &#181;L of the cell suspension and create a cell smear using the hematocrit method17.</li>
	<li>Let the smear air-dry naturally (within 48 h). Fix the smear with a commercially available staining solution for 10 s.</li>
	<li>Immerse the smear in A staining solution for 8 s. During staining, gently lift the slide up and down, and rinse off excess stain with running water.</li>
	<li>Stain the smear in B staining solution for 8 s. Lift the slide during staining and rinse off excess stain under running water. 
	NOTE: Staining solutions A and B are available in the commercially available staining kit.</li>
	<li>Dip the slide in anhydrous ethanol twice, each time for 2-3 s.</li>
	<li>Once dry, apply an appropriate amount of neutral gum. Seal the slide with coverslips.</li>
</ol>
4. Quantitative analysis of CCAM
<ol>
	<li>Use a light microscope with a 100x oil lens objective. Capture images of randomly selected, well-stained, and morphologically intact macrophages. Take 50 macrophage pictures randomly for each sample.</li>
	<li>Perform image analysis in the Image J software following the steps below:
	<ol>
		<li>Measure the scale and determine the actual length and pixel-to-pixel conversion (282 pixels = 10 &#181;m). Set the scale in Image J (Analyze &#62; Set scale), input Distance in pixels, actual length, unit of length (&#181;m), and tick Global.</li>
		<li>Use an irregular shape to outline the cells. Remove the background (freehand selections, Edit &#62; Clear outside). Measure the total area of the cells (Analyze &#62; Measurement).</li>
		<li>Cut out the nucleus (Edit &#62; Cut). Convert the grayscale image to black and white (Image &#62; Type &#62; 8 bit).</li>
		<li>Adjust the grayscale value specific to each cell staining for accurate carbon particle counting (Image &#62; Adjust &#62; Threshold &#62; Apply, Analyze &#62;&#62; Measurement).</li>
		<li>Calculate the carbon content of 50 macrophages per sample based on the measured area and image analysis in Image J software.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Quantifying Carbon in Pulmonary Macrophages via Induced Sputum Analysis

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The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

This study presents a detailed experimental protocol for using induced sputum-derived CCAM as a biological marker for internal exposure to atmospheric particulate matter. CCAM can be detected and quantified through optical microscopy, serving as a precise internal exposure biomarker reflecting the relationship with health effects. Therefore, there is a need to establish and optimize a convenient, reliable, and efficient induced sputum preservation method and a CCAM quantification method to standardize the methodological ...

Ambient air pollution is associated with deaths due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, posing a serious threat to human health1,2. Epidemiological data indicate that chronic exposure to ambient particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 &#181;m in diameter (PM2.5) is responsible for the premature deaths of between 4 and 9 million people globally. PM2.5 was ranked as the fifth most important risk factor for global mortality in the 2015 Global Burden of Disease, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD)3,4,5,6. Studies have found that adherence to WHO air pollution guidelines could prevent 51,213 deaths per year from PM2.5 exposure3. Currently, most studies lack the evaluation of intra-individual exposure and are only based on crude evaluations at larger regional monitoring sites, which are far from individual exposure levels. The available biomarkers of internal exposure, such as urinary PAHs and benzo(a)pyrene, do not reflect the associations between particulate matter exposures and health effects7,8,9. This leads to the inability to establish an accurate relationship with health effects. Therefore, the search for markers that reflect the level of particulate matter exposure in an individual is one of the keys to accurate exposure assessment for individuals.
Particles inhaled into the bronchi can be excreted with sputum through ciliary oscillations in the bronchi. The lack of a ciliated mucous flow transport system in the alveoli means that the primary clearance route for particles entering the alveoli is through phagocytosis and translocation by macrophages10,11. Based on the anatomical structure of the lung, its clearance of insoluble particulate foreign matter is slow. This allows particulate matter to interact with lung cells for extended periods and initiate various biological effects, causing damage to lung tissue and other organs12,13. Stimulation by particulate matter leads to macrophage activation, triggering a cascade of inflammatory factors in the lungs that can cause a systemic inflammatory response14. Considering the crucial role of macrophage cytophagy in eliciting cytokine storms in the lungs, it is theorized that carbon particles from lung macrophages could reflect the biologically effective dose of airborne carbon-nucleated particulate exposure15. Furthermore, since there is no aggregation of elemental carbon in mammalian cells and carbon-containing particles can be observed as black particulate matter under a light microscope, the collection of alveolar and bronchial macrophages and measurement of the carbon content in them can serve as a marker for evaluating particulate matter exposure16.
This study identified a method for accurately assessing individual particulate matter exposure levels, known as the Carbon Content of Airway Macrophages (CCAM). Specifically, population sputum samples were collected after participants inhaled hypertonic saline generated by an ultrasonic nebulizer. These samples were then preserved using a fixative solution. Airway macrophages were isolated, stained, and photographed under a light microscope to identify macrophages containing carbon-containing particles, which were then quantified. This method provides a biological marker for accurately assessing individual particulate matter exposure levels. It establishes a methodological foundation for investigating the relationship between particulate matter exposure and health effects, serving as a research basis for exploring associations between PM exposure and health outcomes such as lung diseases.

<table><tbody><tr><td>3 mL sterile straws</td><td>Shanghai YEASEN Biotechnology Co., LTD</td><td>84202ES03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50 mL centrifuge tube</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA</td><td>339652</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Absolute ethyl alcohol</td><td>Sinopharm Group Chemical Reagent Co. LTD</td><td>64-17-5</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cedar oil</td><td>Shanghai McLean Biochemical Technology Co., LTD</td><td>C805296</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Diff-quick staining solution</td><td>Shanghai YEASEN Biotechnology Co., LTD</td><td>40748ES76</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dithiothreitol</td><td>Solebo Bio Co., LTD</td><td>D8220</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Duchenne phosphate buffer (DPBS)</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA</td><td>14190144</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope camera</td><td>Olympus Corporation of Japan</td><td>DP72</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Neutral tree gum</td><td>Solebo Bio Co., LTD</td><td>G8590</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nylon filter membrane 70um</td><td>BD Falcon Bioscience, USA</td><td>211755</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Optical microscope</td><td>Olympus Corporation of Japan</td><td>BX60</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Polyethylene glycol</td><td>Sinopharm Group Chemical Reagent Co. LTD</td><td>25322-68-3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ultracentrifuge</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA</td><td>SL40R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Viscous slide</td><td>Jiangsu SHitAI EXPERIMENTAL Equipment Co. LTD</td><td>188105</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

measuring carbon content in airway macrophages exposed to carbon-containing particulate matters

Pulmonary macrophages exhibit a dose-dependent pattern in phagocytizing particles. Following engulfment, these macrophages are subsequently excreted with sputum, rendering macrophages and particles visible and quantifiable under light microscopy. Notably, elemental carbon within the mammalian body originates exclusively from external contaminants. Consequently, the carbon content in airway macrophages (CCAM) serves as a valid exposure biomarker, accurately estimating individual exposure to carbon-containing particulate matter (PM). This article delineates a protocol involving sputum collection, preservation, processing, slide preparation, and staining, as well as macrophage photo acquisition and analysis. After removing the macrophage nuclei, the proportion of cytoplasm area occupied by carbon particles (PCOC) was calculated to quantify carbon content in each macrophage. The results indicate an elevation in CCAM levels after exposure to carbon-containing PM. In summary, this non-invasive, precise, reliable, and standardized method enables the direct measurement of carbon particles within target cells and is utilized for large-scale quantification of individual CCAM through induced sputum.

The sputum, preserved and processed with the fixative solution, displayed intact macrophage morphology under an optical microscope during morphological examination. The macrophages exhibited clear, round, or kidney-shaped, easily stainable cell nuclei. Following staining, the cell nuclei appeared bluish-purple, while the cytoplasm was light pink or light blue. The microscopic field showed minimal impurities, which facilitated easy cell identification. Within the cells, black carbon particles were distinctly visible in sm...

Measuring Carbon Content in Airway Macrophages Exposed to Carbon-Containing Particulate Matters

This article describes a detailed experimental protocol for measuring the carbon content of airway macrophages with the aim of assessing the internal exposure dose at the level of individual particulate matter exposure.

Pulmonary macrophages exhibit a dose-dependent pattern in phagocytizing particles. Following engulfment, these macrophages are subsequently excreted with ...

measuring-carbon-content-airway-macrophages-exposed-to-carbon

Universidad San Sebastian

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JoVE Journal

Environment

242 Views.  Qingdao University. This article describes a detailed experimental protocol for measuring the carbon content of airway macrophages with the aim of assessing the internal exposure dose at the level of individual particulate matter exposure.

Video: Measuring Carbon Content in Airway Macrophages Exposed to Carbon-Containing Particulate Matters

Analysis of the Ambient Particulate Matter-induced Chromosomal Aberrations Using an In Vitro System

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is a major world health concern, which may damage various cellular components, including the nuclear genetic material. To assess the impact of PM on nuclear genetic integrity, structural chromosomal aberrations are scored in the metaphase spreads of mouse RAW264.7 macrophage cells. PM is collected from ambient air with a high volume total suspended particles sampler. The collected material is solubilized and filtered to retain the water-soluble, fine portion. The particles are characterized for chemical composition by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Different concentrations of particle suspension are added onto an in vitro culture of RAW264.7 mouse macrophages for a total exposure time of 72 hr, along with untreated control cells. At the end of exposure, the culture is treated with colcemid to arrest cells in metaphase. Cells are then harvested, treated with hypotonic solution, fixed in acetomethanol, dropped onto glass slides and finally stained with Giemsa solution. Slides are examined to assess the structural chromosomal aberrations (CAs) in metaphase spreads at 1,000X magnification using a bright-field microscope. 50 to 100 metaphase spread are scored for each treatment group. This technique is adapted for the detection of structural chromosomal aberrations (CAs), such as chromatid-type breaks, chromatid-type exchanges, acentric fragments, dicentric and ring chromosomes, double minutes, endoreduplication, and Robertsonian translocations in vitro after exposure to PM. It is a powerful method to associate a well-established cytogenetic endpoint to epigenetic alterations.

Analysis of the Ambient Particulate Matter-induced Chromosomal Aberrations Using an In Vitro System

This protocol describes techniques for the quantification and characterization of chromosomal aberrations in vitro in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages after treatment with ambient air particulate matter.

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is a major world health concern, which may damage various cellular components, including the nuclear genetic material. ...

Genetics

Isolation of Mouse Respiratory Epithelial Cells and Exposure to Experimental Cigarette Smoke at Air Liquid Interface  

Pulmonary epithelial cells can be isolated from the respiratory tract of mice and cultured at air-liquid interface (ALI) as a model of differentiated respiratory epithelium. A protocol is described for isolating and exposing these cells to mainstream cigarette smoke (CS), in order to study epithelial cell responses to CS exposure. The protocol consists of three parts: the isolation of airway epithelial cells from mouse trachea, the culturing of these cells at air-liquid interface (ALI) as fully differentiated epithelial cells, and the delivery of calibrated mainstream CS to these cells in culture. The ALI culture system allows the culture of respiratory epithelia under conditions that more closely resemble their physiological setting than ordinary liquid culture systems. The study of molecular and lung cellular responses to CS exposure is a critical component of understanding the impact of environmental air pollution on human health. Research findings in this area may ultimately contribute towards understanding the etiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other tobacco-related diseases, which represent major global health problems.

Isolation of Mouse Respiratory Epithelial Cells and Exposure to Experimental Cigarette Smoke at Air Liquid Interface

Pulmonary epithelial cells can be isolated from the respiratory tract of mice and cultured at air-liquid interface as a model of differentiated respiratory epithelium. A protocol is described for isolating, culturing and exposing these cells to mainstream cigarette smoke, in order to study molecular responses to this environmental toxin.

Pulmonary epithelial cells can be isolated from the respiratory tract of mice and cultured at air-liquid interface (ALI) as a model of differentiated ...

Medicine

Harvesting Murine Alveolar Macrophages and Evaluating Cellular Activation Induced by Polyanhydride Nanoparticles

Biodegradable nanoparticles have emerged as a versatile platform for the design and implementation of new intranasal vaccines against respiratory infectious diseases. Specifically, polyanhydride nanoparticles composed of the aliphatic sebacic acid (SA), the aromatic 1,6-bis(p-carboxyphenoxy)hexane (CPH), or the amphiphilic 1,8-bis(p-carboxyphenoxy)-3,6-dioxaoctane (CPTEG) display unique bulk and surface erosion kinetics1,2 and can be exploited to slowly release functional biomolecules (e.g., protein antigens, immunoglobulins, etc.) in vivo3,4,5. These nanoparticles also possess intrinsic adjuvant activity, making them an excellent choice for a vaccine delivery platform6,7,8.
	In order to elucidate the mechanisms governing the activation of innate immunity following intranasal mucosal vaccination, one must evaluate the molecular and cellular responses of the antigen presenting cells (APCs) responsible for initiating immune responses. Dendritic cells are the principal APCs found in conducting airways, while alveolar macrophages (AM&#632;) predominate in the lung parenchyma9,10,11. AM&#632; are highly efficient in clearing the lungs of microbial pathogens and cell debris12,13. In addition, this cell type plays a valuable role in the transport of microbial antigens to the draining lymph nodes, which is an important first step in the initiation of an adaptive immune response9. AM&#632; also express elevated levels of innate pattern recognition and scavenger receptors, secrete pro-inflammatory mediators, and prime na&iuml;ve T cells12,14. A relatively pure population of AM&#632; (e.g., greater than 80%) can easily be obtained via lung lavage for study in the laboratory. Resident AM&#632; harvested from immune competent animals provide a representative phenotype of the macrophages that will encounter the particle-based vaccine in vivo. Herein, we describe the protocols used to harvest and culture AM&#632; from mice and examine the activation phenotype of the macrophages following treatment with polyanhydride nanoparticles in vitro.

Herein, we describe protocols for harvesting murine alveolar macrophages, which are resident innate immune cells in the lung, and examining their activation in response to co-culture with polyanhydride nanoparticles.

Biodegradable nanoparticles have emerged as a  versatile platform for the design and implementation of new intranasal vaccines  against respiratory ...

Bioengineering

Impact Assessment of Repeated Exposure of Organotypic 3D Bronchial and Nasal Tissue Culture Models to Whole Cigarette Smoke

Cigarette smoke (CS) has a major impact on lung biology and may result in the development of lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or lung cancer. To understand the underlying mechanisms of disease development, it would be important to examine the impact of CS exposure directly on lung tissues. However, this approach is difficult to implement in epidemiological studies because lung tissue sampling is complex and invasive. Alternatively, tissue culture models can facilitate the assessment of exposure impacts on the lung tissue. Submerged 2D cell cultures, such as normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cell cultures, have traditionally been used for this purpose. However, they cannot be exposed directly to smoke in a similar manner to the in vivo exposure situation. Recently developed 3D tissue culture models better reflect the in vivo situation because they can be cultured at the air-liquid interface (ALI). Their basal sides are immersed in the culture medium; whereas, their apical sides are exposed to air. Moreover, organotypic tissue cultures that contain different type of cells, better represent the physiology of the tissue in vivo. In this work, the utilization of an in vitro exposure system to expose human organotypic bronchial and nasal tissue models to mainstream CS is demonstrated. Ciliary beating frequency and the activity of cytochrome P450s (CYP) 1A1/1B1 were measured to assess functional impacts of CS on the tissues. Furthermore, to examine CS-induced alterations at the molecular level, gene expression profiles were generated from the tissues following exposure. A slight increase in CYP1A1/1B1 activity was observed in CS-exposed tissues compared with air-exposed tissues. A network-and transcriptomics-based systems biology approach was sufficiently robust to demonstrate CS-induced alterations of xenobiotic metabolism that were similar to those observed in the bronchial and nasal epithelial cells obtained from smokers.

The aim of this protocol is to expose human organotypic 3D bronchial and nasal tissue models to mainstream cigarette smoke (CS) at the air-liquid interface. The impact of CS on the tissues is then investigated using a cytochrome P450 activity assay, a cilia beating measurement, and a systems biology approach.

Cigarette smoke (CS) has a major impact on lung biology and may result in the development of lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ...

Assessing Anti-fungal Activity of Isolated Alveolar Macrophages by Confocal Microscopy

The lung is an interface where host cells are routinely exposed to microbes and microbial products. Alveolar macrophages are the first-line phagocytic cells that encounter inhaled fungi and other microbes. Macrophages and other immune cells recognize Aspergillus motifs by pathogen recognition receptors and initiate downstream inflammatory responses. The phagocyte NADPH oxidase generates reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs) and is critical for host defense. Although NADPH oxidase is critical for neutrophil-mediated host defense1-3, the importance of NADPH oxidase in macrophages is not well defined. The goal of this study was to delineate the specific role of NADPH oxidase in macrophages in mediating host defense against A. fumigatus. We found that NADPH oxidase in alveolar macrophages controls the growth of phagocytosed A. fumigatus spores4. Here, we describe a method for assessing the ability of mouse alveolar macrophages (AMs) to control the growth of phagocytosed Aspergillus spores (conidia). Alveolar macrophages are stained in vivo and ten days later isolated from mice by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Macrophages are plated onto glass coverslips, then seeded with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing A. fumigatus spores. At specified times, cells are fixed and the number of intact macrophages with phagocytosed spores is assessed by confocal microscopy.

A method to evaluate the ability of isolated mouse alveolar macrophages to control the growth of phagocytosed Aspergillus spores by confocal microscopy.

The lung is an interface where host cells are routinely exposed to microbes and microbial products. Alveolar macrophages are the first-line phagocytic ...

Immunology and Infection

Automated Measurement of Pulmonary Emphysema and Small Airway Remodeling in Cigarette Smoke-exposed Mice

COPD is projected to be the third most common cause of mortality world-wide by 2020(1). Animal models of COPD are used to identify molecules that contribute to the disease process and to test the efficacy of novel therapies for COPD. Researchers use a number of models of COPD employing different species including rodents, guinea-pigs, rabbits, and dogs(2). However, the most widely-used model is that in which mice are exposed to cigarette smoke. Mice are an especially useful species in which to model COPD because their genome can readily be manipulated to generate animals that are either deficient in, or over-express individual proteins. Studies of gene-targeted mice that have been exposed to cigarette smoke have provided valuable information about the contributions of individual molecules to different lung pathologies in COPD(3-5). Most studies have focused on pathways involved in emphysema development which contributes to the airflow obstruction that is characteristic of COPD. However, small airway fibrosis also contributes significantly to airflow obstruction in human COPD patients(6), but much less is known about the pathogenesis of this lesion in smoke-exposed animals. To address this knowledge gap, this protocol quantifies both emphysema development and small airway fibrosis in smoke-exposed mice. This protocol exposes mice to CS using a whole-body exposure technique, then measures respiratory mechanics in the mice, inflates the lungs of mice to a standard pressure, and fixes the lungs in formalin. The researcher then stains the lung sections with either Gill&#8217;s stain to measure the mean alveolar chord length (as a readout of emphysema severity) or Masson&#8217;s trichrome stain to measure deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins around small airways (as a readout of small airway fibrosis). Studies of the effects of molecular pathways on both of these lung pathologies will lead to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of COPD.

The goal of this protocol is to provide automated methods to quantify chronic lung pathologies in a murine model of COPD. The protocol includes exposing mice to cigarette smoke (CS), measuring pulmonary function, inflating the lungs, and using morphometry methods to measure emphysema and small airway remodeling in mice.

COPD is projected to be the third most common cause of mortality world-wide by 2020(1).  Animal models of COPD are used to identify molecules that ...

Visualizing Macrophage Extracellular Traps Using Confocal Microscopy

A primary method used to define the presence of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is confocal microscopy. We have modified established confocal microscopy methods to visualize macrophage extracellular traps (METs). These extracellular traps are defined by the presence of extracellular chromatin with co-expression of other components such as granule proteases, citrullinated histones, and peptidyl arginase deiminase (PAD). The expression of METs is generally measured after exposure to a stimulus and compared to un-stimulated samples. Samples are also included for background and isotype control. Cells are analyzed using well-defined image analysis software. Confocal microscopy may be used to define the presence of METs both in vitro and in vivo in lung tissue.

Macrophage extracellular traps are a newly described entity. This article will concentrate on confocal microscopy methods and how they are visualized in vitro and in vivo from lung samples.

A primary method used to define the presence of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is confocal microscopy. We have modified established confocal ...

Methodology for Sputum Induction and Laboratory Processing

The technique of sputum induction and processing is a recognized non-invasive method allowing the collection and analysis of cells from the airways, which is interesting in various respiratory diseases like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic cough, or idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. This technique is well tolerated, safe and non-invasive, but is currently limited to research services and specialized centers in clinical practice because it is technically demanding, time-consuming, and requires trained staff. The success rate of sputum induction and analysis is about 80%.
Here, we describe the induction and laboratory processing of sputum samples. Sputum is induced by inhalation of hypertonic or isotonic saline with salbutamol. For the processing, we use the whole sputum technique. Dithiothreitol (DTT) is used to allow mucolysis of sputum samples. The primary aim of sputum processing is to obtain a differential cell count to study the cell types present in the airway lumen. Additional analyses may also be performed on sputum supernatant and sputum cells, which may allow further investigation into inflammatory processes and immune mechanisms. Examples include studying mediators in sputum supernatant and performing a large spectrum of analysis on sputum cells such as flow cytometry, genomics, or proteomics.
Finally, representative results of sputum analysis in healthy controls, asthmatics, and COPD patients are presented.

Here we describe the technique of sputum induction. This protocol also explains the sputum processing to perform a differential cell count and to collect sputum supernatant and cells for further analysis.

The technique of sputum induction and processing is a recognized non-invasive method allowing the collection and analysis of cells from the airways, which ...

In Vivo Assessment of Alveolar Macrophage Efferocytosis Following Ozone Exposure

Ozone (O3) is a criteria air pollutant that exacerbates and increases the incidence of chronic pulmonary diseases. O3 exposure is known to induce pulmonary inflammation, but little is known regarding how exposure alters processes important to the resolution of inflammation. Efferocytosis is a resolution process, whereby macrophages phagocytize apoptotic cells. The purpose of this protocol is to measure alveolar macrophage efferocytosis following O3-induced lung injury and inflammation. Several methods have been described for measuring efferocytosis; however, most require ex vivo manipulations. Described in detail here is a protocol to measure in vivo alveolar macrophage efferocytosis 24 h after O3 exposure, which avoids ex vivo manipulation of macrophages and serves as a simple technique that can be used to accurately represent perturbations in this resolution process. The protocol is a technically non-intensive and relatively inexpensive method that involves whole-body O3 inhalation followed by oropharyngeal aspiration of apoptotic cells (i.e., Jurkat T cells) while under general anesthesia. Alveolar macrophage efferocytosis is then measured by light microscopy evaluation of macrophages collected from bronchoalveolar (BAL) lavage. Efferocytosis is finally measured by calculating an efferocytic index. Collectively, the outlined methods quantify efferocytic activity in the lung in vivo while also serving to analyze the negative health effects of O3 or other inhaled insults.

This manuscript describes a protocol for determining whether exposure to ozone, a criteria air pollutant, impairs alveolar macrophage efferocytosis in vivo. This protocol utilizes commonly used reagents and techniques and can be adapted to multiple models of pulmonary injury to determine effects on alveolar macrophage efferocytosis.

Ozone (O3) is a criteria air pollutant that exacerbates and increases the incidence of chronic pulmonary diseases. O3 exposure is known to induce ...

An Air-liquid Interface Bronchial Epithelial Model for Realistic, Repeated Inhalation Exposure to Airborne Particles for Toxicity Testing

For toxicity testing of airborne particles, air-liquid interface (ALI) exposure systems have been developed for in vitro tests in order to mimic realistic exposure conditions. This puts specific demands on the cell culture models. Many cell types are negatively affected by exposure to air (e.g., drying out) and only remain viable for a few days. This limits the exposure conditions that can be used in these models: usually relatively high concentrations are applied as a cloud (i.e., droplets containing particles, which settle down rapidly) within a short period of time. Such experimental conditions do not reflect realistic long-term exposure to low concentrations of particles. To overcome these limitations the use of a human bronchial epithelial cell line, Calu-3 was investigated. These cells can be cultured at ALI conditions for several weeks while retaining a healthy morphology and a stable monolayer with tight junctions. In addition, this bronchial model is suitable for testing the effects of repeated exposures to low, realistic concentrations of airborne particles using an ALI exposure system. This system uses a continuous airflow in contrast to other ALI exposure systems that use a single nebulization producing a cloud. Therefore, the continuous flow system is suitable for repeated and prolonged exposure to airborne particles while continuously monitoring the particle characteristics, exposure concentration, and delivered dose. Taken together, this bronchial model, in combination with the continuous flow exposure system, is able to mimic realistic, repeated inhalation exposure conditions that can be used for toxicity testing.

Described is the cell culture and exposure method of an in vitro bronchial model for realistic, repeated inhalation exposure to particles for toxicity testing.

For toxicity testing of airborne particles, air-liquid interface (ALI) exposure systems have been developed for in vitro tests in order to mimic realistic ...

Measuring Carbon Content in Airway Macrophages Exposed to Carbon-Containing Particulate Matters

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Analysis of the Ambient Particulate Matter-induced Chromosomal Aberrations Using an In Vitro System

Isolation of Mouse Respiratory Epithelial Cells and Exposure to Experimental Cigarette Smoke at Air Liquid Interface

Harvesting Murine Alveolar Macrophages and Evaluating Cellular Activation Induced by Polyanhydride Nanoparticles

Impact Assessment of Repeated Exposure of Organotypic 3D Bronchial and Nasal Tissue Culture Models to Whole Cigarette Smoke

Assessing Anti-fungal Activity of Isolated Alveolar Macrophages by Confocal Microscopy

Automated Measurement of Pulmonary Emphysema and Small Airway Remodeling in Cigarette Smoke-exposed Mice

Visualizing Macrophage Extracellular Traps Using Confocal Microscopy

Methodology for Sputum Induction and Laboratory Processing

In Vivo Assessment of Alveolar Macrophage Efferocytosis Following Ozone Exposure

An Air-liquid Interface Bronchial Epithelial Model for Realistic, Repeated Inhalation Exposure to Airborne Particles for Toxicity Testing